Constantine the Great - 1359 Words

Constantine the Great Constantine the Great, first Christian Emperor, originator of Constantinople, creator of the Byzantine Empire, military conqueror, and honored saint, has been labeled by many the most instrumental emperor of the Roman Empire. Constantine played a crucial role in the development of Europe during the Middle Ages, and founded Christianity as the formal religion of the Roman Empire. His dynamic yet effective predominance laid the infrastructure of European development. From his humble beginnings, to his command of the Roman Empire, to his final days, Constantine’s impact on world history and Christianity has left behind an unforgettable legacy. He was described by Eusebius as â€Å"such an emperor as all history records†¦show more content†¦Diocletian did not entirely trust Constantius, and held Constantine as a hostage in his court to ensure first-rate performance from Constantius. Despite this Constantine remained a distinguished court member, f ighting for Diocletian, as well as for Galerius in Asia. He battled the barbarians of Danube in 296, fought the Persians in Syria and Mesopotamia in 297, 298, and 299. Constantine returned to Nicomedia in the spring of 303, to find the beginnings of Diocletian’s â€Å"Great Persecution†, beginning to take place. The Great Persecution brought about the demolition of the new church in Nicomedia, the imprisonment of priests, the deprivation of authoritative ranks from Christians, and the destruction of many churches and scriptures. On May 1, 305 Diocletian announced his resignation because of a crippling illness he developed during the previous winter. Galerius was chosen as his imperial successor. It did not take Constantine long to recognize the immediate danger in remaining in the east. Constantius made the request of Galerius to allow his son to leave the east to help him campaign in Britain. Galerius granted the request, and during the summer of 305 Constantine joine d his father in Gaul. Constantine campaigned at his father’s side for a year in Northern Britain, before his father became very ill. Over the course of his campaign, Constantius’s health quickly declined, and heShow MoreRelatedThe Legacy Of Constantine The Great1471 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction Constantine the Great, also known as Saint Constantine, was the Roman Emperor from 306 to 337, right after Diocletian. As the first Roman emperor to call himself a Christian, his actions greatly affected both the history of the Christian Church and the history of the world. However, the question is, were his efforts about benefitting the church or about benefitting himself? It is said that because of his edicts and leadership, he was able to move the church as well as himself intoRead MoreConstantine the Great Constantine the Great, military victor, glorified saint, equal to the1900 Words   |  8 PagesConstantine the Great Constantine the Great, military victor, glorified saint, equal to the Apostles, first Christian Emperor, builder of Constantinople, and founder of the Byzantine Empire, has been called by many the most influential emperor of Late Antiquity. Constantine played a crucial role in the development of Europe during the Middle Ages, and established Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire. His dynamic yet effective predominance laid the foundations of post classicalRead MoreThe Great Leaders Of Pericles And Constantine1516 Words   |  7 PagesHe stares in awe at the sign, then begins to think about it. This all happened a long time ago. 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He did not live modestly like the classical Greek culture required. Instead of dressing simply and with austerity, Alexander wore elaborate Asian-styled clothing and he likely enjoyed Epicurean pleasures. Although leading military campaignsRead More The Rule of Constantine Essay1541 Words   |  7 PagesThe Rule of Constantine The emperor Constantine has been called the most important emperor of the late antiquity. The many great events of his reign laid foundations that would affect the future of Europe and Western Civilization for centuries to come. His recognition and support of Christianity was one of the most important moments in world history. Moving the government of the Roman Empire to Constantinople and founding â€Å"New Rome† was one of the most significant decisions ever made by a RomanRead MoreThe Rise Of The Century King Cyrus And Emperor Constantine1305 Words   |  6 Pagesin history King Cyrus and Emperor Constantine you will discover that these two historical leaders dramatically influenced the change of direction for Judaism and Christianity. There are some scholars who would argue that these two ruler’s conversions to god was not sincere and they were just political masterminds. Either way Cyrus and Constantine are two central figures in Judaism and Christianity, two of t he world’s major organized religions. Cyrus and Constantine took over many lands and built theirRead MoreConstantine : A Influential Leader1295 Words   |  6 PagesConstantine was a very influential leader throughout his life. 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He called the Council of Nicea in 325 to resolve conflicts arising between the Arian Christians and the Athansian Christians. 2 This resulted in the canonization of Athansian Christianity, to which Constantine I converted his empire. 3Clovis

An Analysis Of Patrick Cariou s Canal Zone - 1722 Words

Copyright involves the exclusive legal right to reproduce, publish, sell, or distribute the matter and form of something (as a literary, musical, or artistic work). This enables the creator of such item to have insurance that no one else can steal or replicate their idea. Copyright has seen some of the largest court cases of all time where companies have sued millions due to breaches of copyright. A French photographer, Patrick Cariou, published a book Yes, Rasta (Powerhouse) for a show at Gagosian Galleryphotographs. The images were of a Rastafarian community in Jamaica. In 2008 Richard Prince created Canal Zone, which were a series of art works incorporating Cariou s photographs of the Rastafarian Community. Prince s works†¦show more content†¦In April 2013 The SDNY found that most of Prince s works were deemed to be transformative of the original works to an observer and consequently in fair use. In particular, the Court found that the lower court erred in requiring that the appropriating artist claim to be commenting on the original work, and found works to be transformative if they presented a new aesthetic. The court found 25 of Prince’s works to be transformative fair use under fair use. Cariou and Prince have since settled the case. Defamation or Libel is a false statement or accusation that harms the reputation of an individual person, business and much more. In regards to journalism there have been numerous cases in the UK of a newspaper organisations publishing an article or an image that could be seen as defamatory to those involved. This has led to numerous court cases against these media outlets due to the defamatory nature of the publication. For example, in 2011, Comedian Frankie Boyle, sued The Daily Mirror after describing him as ‘racist comedian’. Boyle said the paper defamed him with an article that was published in on 19 July 2011. Boyle claimed that the defamatory article cost him his job on the BBC panel show Mock The Week. The Daily Mirror defended the article they published by claiming it that the racist description was either true or honest comment on a matter of public interest

Fellow Nurse Is Practicing Misconduct †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Fellow Nurse Is Practicing Misconduct. Answer: Introduction A nurse is a medical practitioner who visits patient each and every time more than any other person. He or she is in position to check and monitor the illness of the patients for all the period in the hospital till the time of discharge (Carney, 2016). In many cases, nurses in Australia have been found guilty of misconduct. Nurse practice needs lots of care and due diligence on the client. Nurse misconduct varies on the nature of the act. Some misconduct arises due to unavoidable circumstances or even unawareness. Contrarily, some misconducts are done deliberately with a goal of achieving something (Yildiz et al., 2014). For instance, some nurses may conceal drugs in the aim of selling them and give the patient under dose. Depending on the act, the NCSBN, National Council of midwives and nurses have the authority to revisit the matter and award the judgment accordingly. In place of practice, a nurse is held responsible for the threatening actions done to patients and public interest under his or her watch (Cashin et al, .2016). The paper will analyze a case where a nurse finds that the fellow nurse is practicing misconduct. It will outline the immediate actions, regulations on the matter and the ethical and legal implications of the matter. Immediate actions required A nurse pointing out that they are practicing patient care and yet they are not doing it is a breach of the code of conduct. It implies that the nurse went against the set rules and regulations which are set by National Council of State Boards ofNursing (NCSBN) and as a fellow nurse, I have an immediate role to play to prevent them from further breach of the law (Parahoo, 2014). First and for most, I will remind them of the set regulations that guide the nurse practices so that they might not be guilty about my move. Secondly, I will inform them to refrain from the act to avoid consequences from NCSBN, clients through court and any other interested body. Being a criminal act, I believe if they do not adhere to my advice, I will not condone their practices. I will take the proactive measure of informing relevant authorities of their acts so that life of patients cannot be put at risk anymore (Tobiano et al., 2017). It is interesting to note thatnursing calls for services to people and there are no any shortcut to achieve the ultimate goal of saving lives of patients. According to the law on nurses practice, it is illegal to witness a colleague practicing misconduct without any relevant action. It, therefore, means that I would be held responsible if the actions of my colleague continue to pose risks to the public. Regulations of Australian registered nurse There are many regulations in Australia which guide the practice of registered nurse. The role of a nurse is to make sure that the standard of their practice is in line with the standards set by the profession with an aim of assisting people to be safe (Chang Daly, 2015). However, the key role of the nurses is to offer competent and safe nurse care. It is, therefore, crucial to note that the registered nurses who found to compromise professional standards should be made known to appropriate people. The code of conduct of Australian registered nurses further indicate that nurses who are found witnessing unlawful practices of their colleague and even of coworkers in management, clinical or even research areas of practice possess an obligation and responsibility to report such conduct to a relevant authority for an action to be taken to safeguard the lives of individuals and also the interest of the public (McKenna et al., 2015). The regulation also permits the nurse to report the matter to an external authority if the hospital or employers do not produce a proper response to the matter. Nurses also are entitled to respect the values, dignity, beliefs, and culture of individuals who receive their services and even their colleagues. It is therefore important for nurses to offer effectivenursing care as well as upholding standards of competent and culturally informed care (Parahoo, 2014). They should then acknowledge the nature of families and other people and through their understanding, they should offer appropriate care. It is also significant to highlight that registered nurses are responsible for promoting and protecting the interests of the patients. By doing so, they ensure that action is done to make sure quality and safety of their services are not ruin or compromised. However, nurses should refrain from any form of prejudice and discriminatory behaviors and attitudes to their clients. Nurses should adhere to the provision of care without any favor. On the other hand, nurses should consider providing pros and cons of alternative care products to their clients for them to develop informed choices (Parahoo, 2014). This is to mean that nurses should avoid exploitation, provision of improper information and even misrepresentation in regards to the provision of health care and nurse care. This is to imply that they should precisely represent the care which they want to give people rather than going contrary to the set regulations. Furthermore, nurses should ensure that they develop trust in patients under care that their emotional, physical, social, psychological and cultural well-being be protected at the time of receiving care (Parahoo, 2014). They are also responsible for recognizing vulnerable persons such as people with disabilities, children and even people with mental illness and ensure that they protect them from sexual exploitation. Nurses in Australia also have a role in ensuring a professional boundary with the people being cared. It is one of the approaches to ensuring that the rights of patients remain confidential and also their safety is monitored in accordance with the law (Schneider Whitehead 2013). The unethical practices and breach of conduct among nurses in the professional lives is a risky act which can affect their profession and general reputation in the general public. It calls for nurses to adhere to their roles as prescribed to avoid the public from losing trust from them. It will ensure therapeutic relationships and also the effective delivery of their care services. The practice of nurses is based on ethics and reflectivity in accordance with the code of ethics for Australia nurses. They develop and ensure appropriate nursing care,nursing advice and assistance for each and every individual needing care (Parahoo, 2014). They examine their conduct and competency as set in the standards of the nursing profession. Ethical/legal implications Generally, disciplinary actions, law suits, and internal inquiries are some of the issues which are stressful to nurses who are concerned, more so the publicity which accompanies them. In some situations, these circumstances cannot be prevented and it needs that such stress should be proportionate to the moral culpability of the deeds done by the very nurse. The only way in which all these can be addressed is via the legal actions which can come in different ways (Parahoo, 2014). According to the nurses and midwives tribunal in Australia, they inquire and determines the issues which are brought to them. It has a number of options for such issues. It may caution or even reprimand the concerned nurse. Furthermore, it may come up with conditions on the nurse and in some extreme cases, it may impose suspension and even removal from practice. In addition, the actions done by the nurse to their clients which are contrary to the law will lead to unethical implications to the patient (Scanlo n et al., 2016). It implies that any form of injury, torture, psychological stress and even death can arise. The public will be at risk and legal action should be taken against the institution and the concerned nurse. The nurses are liable for any mistake they make when they are doing practices. First and for most, if any nurse fails to follow instructions prior doing any form of care, they risk their license being revoked (Kleinpell et al., 2014). This is to mean that he or she will not be in a position to transact any nurse practices and he or she will lose the job. In some organizations in Australian, the NCSBN has the right to suspend or revoke the license of the nurse if such nurse presents a great danger to the safety of general public. The practices by nurses are always under watch by the public. If patients feel that they are not being served well in that particular hospital by nurses, it will raise lots of questions on how that particular hospital operates. It will mean that other clients can get information and fails to attend the same hospital. The hospital will lose clients and probably will lead to closure. However, if the matter of misconduct among the nurse in the certain hospital is noted, the NCSBN will definitely arraign the management of the hospital in court to respond on the matter. The court decisions can result in the closure of the very hospital or revocation of their license of practice (Johnstone, 2015). The hospital will not in a position to offer it services to the public. In addition, the patients care in each and every hospital are very crucial. As a matter of fact, the hospital is liable for anything which might happen to the patient if neglected (Royals et al., 2016). If a nurse is very negligent, does not care the patients in accordance with the regulations, patients can contact other secondary diseases, they can get injuries and even they can die (Edmonds et al., 2016). However, on the matter of negligence, patients' health can deteriorate and with watchful eyes of their families, they may file the matter in court and the nurse is judged accordingly. These are offenses which the hospital and the concerned nurse will be liable and they will face consequences as prescribed by the law (Yildiz et al., 2014). An organization is blamed for the failure of some of its personnel to take a relevant action when the personal physician of the patient is not willing or even is unable to cope with the condition which risks the life or the life of a patient. Fai lure to observe the changes in the condition of the patient is a big liability of the organization. Any working nurse should perform their duties fully aware that the hospital does not insure them on mistakes they made. For this particular nurse who breaches the code of conduct, they have to pay for the charges subjected to them by NCSBN when found guilty. The nurse practice is granted by the licensing board and the board of the state can report the license discipline to some of the offices such as insurance council of Australia (ICA) (Blair et al., 2017). The very office can further act by placing the nurse on the excluded provider list. It implies that the very nurse will not be in a position to work in any organization which usually receives the ICA money. Similarly, the state can further exclude the nurse from any form of employment which is funded by ICA services. These particular actions can render the nurse disqualified and unemployable in any other state (Atkins et al., 2017). However, the nurse can also be blacklisted from obtaining any other license in other professions. Personally, the law points out that as a nurse, I should report any acts by other nurses which threaten the safety of the patients as well as general public. It means that I would be punished and this could come in different ways. My license can be revoked or I might be penalized for gross misconduct. Conclusions Breaching the code of conduct in nurse practice forms one of the crimes which have cost many nurses in Australia. The nurse practice is guided by the regulations installed by NCSBN thus each and every nurse is entitled to make decisions based on their knowledge. Given that the very nurse procured misconduct, the laws are very clear on the kinds of punishments need to be taken. As a nurse, it is advisable for each and every nurse to practice nursing under the guidance of the law and not under the personal interests. It will ensure that nursing profession is respected and trusted by the public and eventually people will benefit a lot. References Atkins, K., De Lacey, S., Britton, B., Ripperger, R. (2017).Ethics and law for Australian nurses. Cambridge University Press. Blair, W., Kable, A., Courtney?Pratt, H., Doran, E. (2016). Mixed method integrative review exploring nurses recognition and response to unsafe practice.Journal of advanced nursing,72(3), 488-500. Carney, M. (2016). Regulation of advanced nurse practice: its existence and regulatory dimensions from an international perspective.Journal of nursing management,24(1), 105-114. Cashin, A., Stasa, H., Dunn, S. V., Pont, L., Buckley, T. (2014). Nurse practitioner prescribing practice in Australia: Confidence in aspects of medication management.International journal of nursing practice,20(1), 1-7. Chang, E., Daly, J. (2015).Transitions in Nursing-E-Book: Preparing for Professional Practice. Elsevier Health Sciences. Daly, J., Speedy, S., Jackson, D. (2017).Contexts of nursing: An introduction. Elsevier Health Sciences. Edmonds, L., Cashin, A., Heartfield, M. (2016). Comparison of Australian specialty nurse standards with registered nurse standards.International nursing review,63(2), 162-179. Johnstone, M. J. (2015).Bioethics: a nursing perspective. Elsevier Health Sciences. Kleinpell, R., Scanlon, A., Hibbert, D., Ganz, F., East, L., Fraser, D., Beauchesne, M. (2014). Addressing issues impacting advanced nursing practice worldwide.OJIN: Online J Issues Nurs,19(2), 5. McKenna, L., Halcomb, E., Lane, R., Zwar, N., Russell, G. (2015). An investigation of barriers and enablers to advanced nursing roles in Australian general practice.Collegian,22(2), 183-189. Parahoo, K. (2014).Nursing research: principles, process and issues. Palgrave Macmillan. Royals, K., Lawton, K., Kopsaftis, Z., Carson, K., Smith, B. (2016). An Evaluation Of Outreach Respiratory Nursing Practice For The Management Of Copd Compared To Nursing Best Practice Guidelines: Observational Cohort Study Of Changes Over Time.Respirology,21, 22. Scanlon, A., Cashin, A., Bryce, J., Kelly, J. G., Buckely, T. (2016). The complexities of defining nurse practitioner scope of practice in the Australian context.Collegian,23(1), 129-142. Schneider, Z., Whitehead, D. (2013). Nursing and midwifery research: Methods and appraisal for evidence-based practice: Elsevier Australia. Tobiano, G., Whitty, J. A., Bucknall, T., Chaboyer, W. (2017). Nurses Perceived Barriers to Bedside Handover and Their Implication for Clinical Practice.Worldviews on Evidence?Based Nursing. Yildiz, D., Dilek Konukbay Msc, R. N., Akbayrak, N., Hatipoglu, S. (2014). Assessment of the malpractice tendencies of nurses working in an educational and research hospital.International Journal of Caring Sciences,7(1), 294.

The Morality of Human Act free essay sample

Human Acts are different from Acts of man. We cannot talk about goodness and badness of an act if we are dealing with acts of man. Only with human acts can we determined whether an act is moral or immoral. Acts of man are: acts that happen â€Å"naturally† acts done without self-awareness without deliberation, reflection, consent Instinctive, spontaneous acts that human beings share with other animals Human Acts acts with conscious knowledge acts that are done freely acts done with consent Human acts are those that are freely chosen in consequence of a judgment of conscience. Human acts are actions that proceed from insight into the nature and purpose of one’s doing from the consent of the will (Peschke) They are either good or evil. Essential Attributes of Human Acts: Intellect, free will, and voluntariness or consent The act must be deliberate; with consciousness and knowledge (intellect) The act must be performed in freedom (free will) The act must be done voluntarily (Consent) III. We will write a custom essay sample on The Morality of Human Act or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACTS Modifiers are factors or conditions that affect human acts in the essential qualities of knowledge, freedom and voluntariness. Lack of knowledge or impairment of intellect may affect human act An internal condition or external agent or situation may affect the freedom of the person doing the act An internal condition or external agent or situation may affect the voluntariness or consent of the person doing the act Some acts wherein the doer may not be morally accountable Acts of persons asleep or under hypnosis. Reflex actions where the will has no time to intervene. Acts of performed under serious physical violence e. g. a hostage obliged to do an evil action. Since the will is constrained, then it is not a moral act which could be evaluated. Modifiers of Human Act 1. Ignorance. It is the absence of necessary knowledge which a person in a given situation performing an act ought to have. Vincible Ignorance – lack of knowledge can be remedied; one has to exert effort to get rid of his/her lack of knowledge Invincible Ignorance – one is not aware of his/her ignorance and has no means or capacity to correct or solve it. Principles Governing Ignorance A person performing an act based in invincible ignorance is doing an involuntary act and is therefore not morally responsible / liable. Vincible ignorance does not destroy but lessens the voluntariness and corresponding accountability of the act. Acting with vincible ignorance is imprudent. Responsibility depends on: effort to obtain information, gravity of the matter, and the obligation of the concerned person. Pretended ignorance does not excuse a person from her/his bad actions. On the contrary, it increases his/her malice. 2. Passion or Concupiscence It is a strong feeling or emotion; bodily tendencies as experienced and expressed in fear, love, hatred, despair, horror, sadness, anger, grief, etc. (eg. Intense anger, jealousy, joy) It Includes both positive and negative emotions and is tending either towards desirable or undesirable /harmful things. (eg. An intense anger may lead the person to kill another) 2 Kinds of Passion Antecedent Passion those that precede the act, arousing and predisposing the person to do the act. (eg. an extremely angry wife immediately and â€Å"unknowingly† shot her husband upon seeing him on bed with another man) Principle Governing Antecedent Passion: And antecedent passion does not always destroys voluntariness but diminishes accountability of the resultant act. It weakens the person’s will power without completely obstructing freedom. Consequent Passion Consequent Passions are direct results of the will which consents to them instead of controlling them (eg. a jealous boyfriend allowed his feeling of anger to intensify for a week leading him to box a friend in public) Principle Governing Consequent Passion: A consequent does lessen but may even increase accountability because the person allows self to be completely controlled by passion 3. Fear It is the disturbance of the mind of a person who is confronted with impending danger or harm. A distinction should be made act between an act done with fear from an act done because of fear. Only in acts done because of fear can fear be considered as a modifier of human act. Acts done with fear- (eg. Even if Felix is afraid to use a gun and it was his first time to shoot a person, he shot the intruder of their house and foiled the robbery attempt. ) Acts done out of fear – (eg. With the robber poking a gun on him, Felix was forced to give all the cash collections in exchange for the life of his wife and child) Principles governing fear: Acts done with fear are voluntary; the person acts in spite of fear and is thus in control of his/her behavior; the person is morally responsible. Acts done because of fear are involuntary. The person is not morally accountable for his/her action. 4. Violence Violence is any physical force exerted on a person by another free agent for the purpose of compelling that person to act against his/her will; any act where great and brutal force is inflicted, eg. torture, mutilation, etc. Action resulting from violence is involuntary while the person’s will remains defiant against the aggressor; no consent even if compelled. Fred signed an affidavit of desistance after he was mauled by the goons of a landowner) Principles Governing Violence Action resulting from violence is involuntary while one’s will remains defiant against the aggressor; no consent even if compelled One should actively resist if it is possible. But if not, withholding consent is enough to save the person’s moral integrity. 5. Habit Habit is a constant and easy way of doing things acquired by the repetition of the same act; a lasting readiness and facility, born of frequently repeating acts, for acting in the same manner. Principles Governing Habit A person is morally accountable of his/her action if he/she allows a habit to determine his/her conduct. A deliberately admitted habit does not lessen voluntariness ; the person is still morally responsible for the act because it implies approval of all the consequences which he/she is aware of. IV. SPECIFIC DETERMINANTS OF THE MORALITY OF HUMAN ACTS 1. The Act Itself or the Object of the Act The action of the person The act which the will chooses to perform – that which is deliberately willed by the will – the object of the will It answers the question â€Å"WHAT? † Acts can be in themselves, by their very nature, good or bad or indifferent The moral object can either be good, bad or indifferent praying good stealing- bad eating- indifferent 2. The Motive or Intention The purpose or goal behind the act Asks the question: Why? It modifies the moral worth of the act 4 Principles to consider under motive: an indifferent act can become morally good or evil upon the intention of the person doing the act. eg. eating a muffin (indifferent) with a poison to commit suicide (intention) – this makes the eating the muffin evil An objectively good act becomes evil due to an evil or wrong intention. eg. Mark prays (good act) that his rival classmate will get low grades (intention) – praying becomes an evil act A morally good act can receive added goodness with a noble or good intention. eg Kim prays (act) that all children sick with dengue will be saved from death (intention). the act of praying becomes more good. An intrinsically evil act can never be morally good even if it is done with good intention. eg. Jimmy stole 500 pesos (act) from her dad’s purse so he can give it to a classmate who needs money for tuition(intention). Stealing remains evil even if Jimmy has a good intention. 3. The Circumstance The circumstances are those factors or conditions outside of the act that contribute to increase or diminish the goodness or evil of an action. A morally good act requires the goodness of the object, intention and circumstances. Four (4) types of circumstance affecting morality Mitigating or Extenuating Circumstance A circumstance that diminishes the degree of moral good in the act. eg. A young man shoots his father after years of being beaten, belittled, sworn at and treated without love Aggravating Circumstance A circumstance that increases the degree of moral good or evil in the act without adding new species of moral good or bad. eg. A murderer carried out at night by a killer with a lot of criminal records using powerful weapon Justifying Circumstance A circumstance that shows adequate reason for some acts done. eg. An accused killing a superior aggressor in an act of self-defence Specifying Circumstance A circumstance that gives a news species of a moral good or evil. (who, where, by what means, why). eg. A criminal raping a 12 year old girl and then murdering her by hitting the head with a huge stone. Principles Governing Circumstance a) An indifferent act becomes good or evil by reason of its circumstance. Eating lechon when the person has had a stroke and whose cholesterol level is way beyond normal b) A good act may become evil by reason of circumstance. eg. Susan still continues to pray even if the whole chapel is fast burning into ashes. c) An act may become better or worse, or may take on a new goodness or evil by reason of circumstance eg. Peter commits murder using an automatic rifle that he stole from the military camp. d) An evil act can never be made good by circumstance. eg. Maria says she opted to cheat because it was her last chance given by her Department Dean. The Morality of Human Act free essay sample Human Acts are different from Acts of man. We cannot talk about goodness and badness of an act if we are dealing with acts of man. Only with human acts can we determined whether an act is moral or immoral. Acts of man are: acts that happen â€Å"naturally† acts done without self-awareness without deliberation, reflection, consent Instinctive, spontaneous acts that human beings share with other animals Human Acts acts with conscious knowledge acts that are done freely acts done with consent Human acts are those that are freely chosen in consequence of a judgment of conscience. Human acts are actions that proceed from insight into the nature and purpose of one’s doing from the consent of the will (Peschke) They are either good or evil. Essential Attributes of Human Acts: Intellect, free will, and voluntariness or consent The act must be deliberate; with consciousness and knowledge (intellect) The act must be performed in freedom (free will) The act must be done voluntarily (Consent) III. We will write a custom essay sample on The Morality of Human Act or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACTS Modifiers are factors or conditions that affect human acts in the essential qualities of knowledge, freedom and voluntariness. Lack of knowledge or impairment of intellect may affect human act An internal condition or external agent or situation may affect the freedom of the person doing the act An internal condition or external agent or situation may affect the voluntariness or consent of the person doing the act Some acts wherein the doer may not be morally accountable Acts of persons asleep or under hypnosis. Reflex actions where the will has no time to intervene. Acts of performed under serious physical violence e. g. a hostage obliged to do an evil action. Since the will is constrained, then it is not a moral act which could be evaluated. Modifiers of Human Act 1. Ignorance. It is the absence of necessary knowledge which a person in a given situation performing an act ought to have. Vincible Ignorance – lack of knowledge can be remedied; one has to exert effort to get rid of his/her lack of knowledge Invincible Ignorance – one is not aware of his/her ignorance and has no means or capacity to correct or solve it. Principles Governing Ignorance A person performing an act based in invincible ignorance is doing an involuntary act and is therefore not morally responsible / liable. Vincible ignorance does not destroy but lessens the voluntariness and corresponding accountability of the act. Acting with vincible ignorance is imprudent. Responsibility depends on: effort to obtain information, gravity of the matter, and the obligation of the concerned person. Pretended ignorance does not excuse a person from her/his bad actions. On the contrary, it increases his/her malice. 2. Passion or Concupiscence It is a strong feeling or emotion; bodily tendencies as experienced and expressed in fear, love, hatred, despair, horror, sadness, anger, grief, etc. (eg. Intense anger, jealousy, joy) It Includes both positive and negative emotions and is tending either towards desirable or undesirable /harmful things. (eg. An intense anger may lead the person to kill another) 2 Kinds of Passion Antecedent Passion those that precede the act, arousing and predisposing the person to do the act. (eg. an extremely angry wife immediately and â€Å"unknowingly† shot her husband upon seeing him on bed with another man) Principle Governing Antecedent Passion: And antecedent passion does not always destroys voluntariness but diminishes accountability of the resultant act. It weakens the person’s will power without completely obstructing freedom. Consequent Passion Consequent Passions are direct results of the will which consents to them instead of controlling them (eg. a jealous boyfriend allowed his feeling of anger to intensify for a week leading him to box a friend in public) Principle Governing Consequent Passion: A consequent does lessen but may even increase accountability because the person allows self to be completely controlled by passion 3. Fear It is the disturbance of the mind of a person who is confronted with impending danger or harm. A distinction should be made act between an act done with fear from an act done because of fear. Only in acts done because of fear can fear be considered as a modifier of human act. Acts done with fear- (eg. Even if Felix is afraid to use a gun and it was his first time to shoot a person, he shot the intruder of their house and foiled the robbery attempt. ) Acts done out of fear – (eg. With the robber poking a gun on him, Felix was forced to give all the cash collections in exchange for the life of his wife and child) Principles governing fear: Acts done with fear are voluntary; the person acts in spite of fear and is thus in control of his/her behavior; the person is morally responsible. Acts done because of fear are involuntary. The person is not morally accountable for his/her action. 4. Violence Violence is any physical force exerted on a person by another free agent for the purpose of compelling that person to act against his/her will; any act where great and brutal force is inflicted, eg. torture, mutilation, etc. Action resulting from violence is involuntary while the person’s will remains defiant against the aggressor; no consent even if compelled. Principles Governing Violence Action resulting from violence is involuntary while one’s will remains defiant against the aggressor; no consent even if compelled One should actively resist if it is possible. But if not, withholding consent is enough to save the person’s moral integrity. 5. Habit Habit is a constant and easy way of doing things acquired by the repetition of the same act; a lasting readiness and facility, born of frequently repeating acts, for acting in the same manner. Principles Governing Habit A person is morally accountable of his/her action if he/she allows a habit to determine his/her conduct. A deliberately admitted habit does not lessen voluntariness ; the person is still morally responsible for the act because it implies approval of all the consequences which he/she is aware of. IV. SPECIFIC DETERMINANTS OF THE MORALITY OF HUMAN ACTS 1. The Act Itself or the Object of the Act The action of the person The act which the will chooses to perform – that which is deliberately willed by the will – the object of the will It answers the question â€Å"WHAT? † Acts can be in themselves, by their very nature, good or bad or indifferent The moral object can either be good, bad or indifferent praying good stealing- bad eating- indifferent 2. The Motive or Intention The purpose or goal behind the act Asks the question: Why? It modifies the moral worth of the act 4 Principles to consider under motive: an indifferent act can become morally good or evil upon the intention of the person doing the act. eg. eating a muffin (indifferent) with a poison to commit suicide (intention) – this makes the eating the muffin evil An objectively good act becomes evil due to an evil or wrong intention. Mark prays (good act) that his rival classmate will get low grades (intention) – praying becomes an evil act A morally good act can receive added goodness with a noble or good intention. eg Kim prays (act) that all children sick with dengue will be saved from death (intention). the act of praying becomes more good. An intrinsically evil act can never be morally good even if it is done with good intention. eg. Jimmy stole 500 pesos (act) from her dad’s purse so he can give it to a classmate who needs money for tuition(intention). Stealing remains evil even if Jimmy has a good intention. 3. The Circumstance The circumstances are those factors or conditions outside of the act that contribute to increase or diminish the goodness or evil of an action. A morally good act requires the goodness of the object, intention and circumstances. Four (4) types of circumstance affecting morality Mitigating or Extenuating Circumstance A circumstance that diminishes the degree of moral good in the act. eg. A young man shoots his father after years of being beaten, belittled, sworn at and treated without love Aggravating Circumstance A circumstance that increases the degree of moral good or evil in the act without adding new species of moral good or bad. A murderer carried out at night by a killer with a lot of criminal records using powerful weapon Justifying Circumstance A circumstance that shows adequate reason for some acts done. eg. An accused killing a superior aggressor in an act of self-defence Specifying Circumstance A circumstance that gives a news species of a moral good or evil. (who, where, by what means, why). eg. A criminal raping a 12 year old girl and then murdering her by hitting the head with a huge stone. Principles Governing Circumstance a) An indifferent act becomes good or evil by reason of its circumstance. Eating lechon when the person has had a stroke and whose cholesterol level is way beyond normal b) A good act may become evil by reason of circumstance. eg. Susan still continues to pray even if the whole chapel is fast burning into ashes. c) An act may become better or worse, or may take on a new goodness or evil by reason of circumstance eg. Peter commits murder using an automatic rifle that he stole from the military camp. d) An evil act can never be made good by circumstance. eg. Maria says she opted to cheat because it was her last chance given by her Department Dean.