What is BigData?!How is it secure!!

Nowadays the volume of data and information has grown massively since the beginning of computer , so did the ways of processing and handling those on-growing data , the hardware software and so did the ability to keep those data secure has evolved as well , mobiles , social-media and all deferent types of data caused the data to grow even more and more !! the huge data volume has exceeded a single machine processing capacity and conventional competing mechanisms ! Which led to the use of parallel and distributed processing mechanisms but hence data are expected to increase even more ,the mechanisms and technique as well as hardware, software need to be improved . IntroductionSince the beginning of computers, the people had used landline phones but now they have smartphones. Apart from that, they are also using bulky desktops for processing data, they were using floppiest then hard disk and nowadays they are using cloud for storing data. Similarly, nowadays even self-driving cars have come up and it is one of the Internet of things (IOT) examples. We can notice due to this enhancement of technology we're generating a huge amount of data. Let's take the example of IOT, have imagined how much data is generated due to using the smart air conditioners, this device actually monitors the body temperature and the outside temperature and accordingly decides what should be the temperature of the room. So, we can actually, see that because of IOT we are generating a huge amount of data. Another example of smartphones, every action even one video or image that is sent through any messenger app will generate data. The data that generate from varicose resources are in structured, semi-structured and structured format. List this data is not in a format that our relational database can handle and apart from that even the volume of data has also increased exponentially. We can define Big data as a collection of data sets very large and complex that it is difficult to analyze using conventional data processing applications or database system tools. In this paper firstly, we will define the big data and how to classify a data as big data. Then, we will discuss the privacy and the security in big data and how the infrastructure techniques can process, store and often also analyses a huge amount of data with different formats. Therefore we'll see how Hadoop solve these problems and understand few components of Hadoop framework as well as NoSQL and cloud. What is a big data and how to consider a data as a big data? A widely definition of big data belongs to IDC: â€Å"big data technologies describe a new generation of technologies and architectures, designed to economically extract value from very large volumes of a wide variety of data, by enabling the high-velocity capture, discovery, and/ or analysis† [ (Reinsel, 2011) ] According to the 4V's we can classify the data as a big dataThe 4V's are: 1- Volume of data: it is tremendously large. 2- Variety: different kinds of data is being generated from various sources: Structured: have a proper schema for your data in a tabular format like table.semi-structured schema is not defined properly like XML E-mail and CSV format. un-structured like audio video images. 3- Velocity: data is being generated at an alarming rate. With Clint-server model the time came for the web applications and the internet boom. Nowadays everyone started using all this applications not only from their computers and also from smartphones. So more users more appliances and hence a lot of data. 4- Value: mechanism to bring the correct meaning out of the data. We need to make sure that whatever analysis we have done it is of some value. That is it will help in business to grow. Or it has some value to it. [ (MATTURDI Bardi1, 2014) ] Infrastructure techniques   There are many tools and technologies used to deal with a huge amount of data (manage, analyze, and organize them): Hadoop: It's an open source platform managed under the Apache Software Foundation, and its also called-Apache Hadoop-, and it applies processing a huge amount of data â€Å"It allows to work with structured and unstructured data arrays of dimension from 10 to 100 Gb and even more†[ (V.Burunova)] and that have done by using a set of servers . Hadoop consists of two modules that are, MapReduce which distributed data processing among multiple servers and Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) for storing data on distributed clusters. Hadoop monitors the correct work of clusters and can detect and retrieve any error or failure for one or more of connecting nodes and by this way Hadoop efforts increasing in core processing and storage size and high availability. â€Å"Hadoop is usually used in a large cluster or a public cloud service such as Yahoo!, Facebook, Twitter, and Amazon† [ (Hadeer Mahmoud, 2018)]. NoSql:Nowaday, the global Internet is handled with many users and large data. To make large numbers of users use it simultaneously. To support this, we will use the NoSql database technology. NoSql: it is non-relational database starting in 2009 used for distributed data management system [ (Harrison, 2010)]  Characteristics of NoSql :Schema less: data insert into Nosql without first defining a rigid database it provides immense application flexibility.Auto-Sharding: data prevalence through server automatically, without requiring application to participateScalable replication and distribution: more machine can be easily added to the system according to the requirements of the user and software.Queries return answer quickly.Open source development.The popular models of NoSql:Key value-store.Column OrientedDocument StoreGraph Datab ase  [ (Abhishek Prasad1, 2014)]2.MapReduce frame work :is an algorithm that was created by google to handle and process massive amounts of Data (BigData) in reasonable time using parallel and distributed computing techniques, in other-words data are processed in a distributed way before transmission, this algorithm simply divides Big volumes of data into many smaller chunks. These chunks are map-ed to many computers then after doing the required calculations the data are brought back together to reduce the resulting data set , so as you can see the MapReduce algorithm consists of to main functions :   User-defined Map function : This function takes an input pair and generates a Key/Value set of pairs, the MapReduce library puts all values with same integrated key, then it will be passed to the reduce function. User-defined Reduce function:   Function that accepts all integrated keys and related values from the map function to combine values in-order to form a smaller set of values . Its generally produce 1 or 0 output values.   Ã‚  MapReduce programs can be run in 3 modes:   A. Stand-Alone Mode: only runs JVM (java virtual machine) , no distributed components it uses Linux file system.    B. Pseudo-Distributed Mode: starts a several JVM processes on the same machine.C. Fully-Distributed Mode: runs on multiple machines distributed mode it uses the HDFS. Sparks. (Yang, 2012 )Stands for Scalable Big Bioacoustics Pressing Platform.Is a scalable audio framework existed to handle and process large audio files efficiently by converting the acoustic recordings into a spectrograms(Visual representation of the sound) and then it analyses the recording areas ,this framework is implemented using BigData platforms such as HDFS and Spark . B2P2 main components are:A. Master Node: this node is responsible of manage distribution and control all other nods , its main function are :1-File-distributor, Distribution-Manager : it splits the file into smaller chunks to be distributed on the slave nodes.2-Job-Distributor, Process-Manager: assigns processing tasks that runs on each slave node and gather the outputted files. (Srikanth Thudumu, 2016)A Comprehensive Study on Big Data Security and Integrity Over Cloud Storage Big data requires a tremendous measure of capacity. Information in Big data might be in an unstructured organization, without standard designing, and information sources can be passed the conventional corporate database. Putting away little and medium measured business association's information in a cloud as Big Data is a superior choice for information examination work store Big Data in Network-Attached Storage (NAS). The Big Data put away in the cloud can be broke down utilizing a programming procedure called MapReduce in which question is passed and information are brought. e extricated inquiry comes about is at that point lessened to the informational index important to question. is inquiry handling is at the same time done utilizing NAS gadgets. though MapReduce calculation utilization in Big Data is all around refreshing by numerous analysts as it is without an outline and file free, it requires parsing of each record at perusing point. Is the greatest hindrance of MapReduce calculation use for inquiry preparing in distributed computing. Securing Big Data in Cloud there are a few techniques that canbe utilized to secure hugeinformation in cloud conditions. Inthis area, we will analyze a couple oftechniques.1- Source Validation and Filtering:Data is originating from varioussources, with various arrangementsand merchants. the capacity expertought to confirm and approve thesource before putting away theinformation in distributed storage.the information is sifted through thepassage point itself so security canbe kept up. Application Software Security:the essential worry of Big Data is tostore a gigantic volume ofinformation and not about security.Subsequently, it is prudent to utilizeinitially secure renditions of soproduct to get the data. through opensource, so product and freeware maybe modest, it might bring aboutsecurity breaks. Access Control andAuthentication:the distributed storage supplier mustactualize secure access control andconfirmation systems. It needs tofurnish a few solicitations of theclient's with their parts. at thedifficulty in forcing theseinstruments is that solicitationsmight be from various areas.Scarcely any safe cloud specialistorganizations give validation andaccess control just on enrolled IPtends to in this way guaranteeingsecurity vulnerabilities24. Securingfavored client get to requires all-around characterized securitycontrols and approaches. (Ramakrishnan2, 2016) References  Abhishek Prasad1, B. N. (2014). A Comparative Study of NoSQL Databases. India: National Institute of Technology.Hadeer Mahmoud, A. H. (2018).An approach for Big Data Security bassed on Hadoop Distributed file system . Egypt: Aswan University.Harrison, B. G. (2010). In Search of the Elastic Database. Information Today.MATTURDI Bardi1, Z. X. (2014).Big Data security and privacy: A review. Beijing: University of Science and Technology.Ramakrishnan2, J. R. (2016). A Comprehensive Study on Big Data Security. Indian: ournal of Science and Technology.Reinsel, J. G. (2011).Extracting Value from Chaos. IDC Go-to-Market Services.Srikanth Thudumu, S. G. (2016). A Scalable Big Bioacoustic Processing Platform. Sydney: IEEE.V.Burunova, A. (n.d.). The Big Datsa Analysis. Russia: Saint-Petersburg Electrotechnical University.Yang, G. (2012 ).The Application of MapReduce in the Cloud Computing. Hubei: IEEE.

Benefits of studying abroad

Studying abroad is one of the best experiences a student can have in the course of learning. Students who go through such an experience have been at advantaged position as they have been able to sample a different culture from their own. Studying abroad involves going beyond the border mostly to a foreign country. Students moves to a new environment which might be totally different from what he or she is used to. At times the students may be introduced a new system.The reasons as to why people go to study abroad are as varied as the number of students who go through such an exciting experience. (Cressy, W 2004) Studying abroad usually prepares the students to work and live in a multicultural setting where they interact and learn about the other cultures. It encourages students to have academic discipline as they learn to reason in a totally or slightly different system. Through such an experience students are taught to be independent where they get to do things on their own sometimes in environment which encourage tolerance and accommodation.Through such an exposure the students learn to respect other people’s ways of life despite the differences. This enhances their prospects for the future jobs especially those which are international in nature. (Cressy, W 2004) Studying in a foreign country affords the students many rare chances, these includes learning a new language and an opportunity to experience different cultures, history and environment. It accords the students an opportunity to witness some of the things learnt in text books firsthand.In the modern world employers are seeking skills which have been polished through overseas engagement. A student who has studied in a foreign country will be in a better position to secure employment as he or she will be bringing a new experience to an organization. Studying abroad is a very special opportunity which helps the students to develop certain skills, adaptability and confidence. It is an adventure tha t moulds the students into individual who can fit in different cultures around the world. Reference Cressy, W (2004) A guide to Studying Abroad, Princeton Review

What Does it Cost to Attend Emerson College?

The price of college is on the rise—according to CNN Money , between 2015 and 2017, the cost of attending a public university grew by $900 while the price of private college increased by $1,760. On average, the expense of a four-year college degree is now $56,840 for residents at public colleges and $104,400 at private, non-profit institutions. For students attending top-flight institutions like Emerson College, the price can be even higher. With prices soaring into the hundreds of thousands of dollars, it’s no wonder why the cost of college is on the minds of so many students and parents. However, before expense-induced anxiety sets in, know that the majority of students do not pay the published price at Emerson or any other institution for that matter. College costs are based on a variety of factors unique to individual students, making them difficult to predict; this also makes an institution’s published price a poor indicator of its actual cost. Net price is a better metric for understanding the real cost of college—the amount of aid awarded to a student through federal, state, and local government, institutional aid, and awards for merit are all calculated into the net price, making it much more effective for illustrating what an individual student will pay for school. Keep reading to learn about the factors that affect college costs, what those costs are at Emerson College, and to pick up some tips for reducing the expense of your education. The list price, sometimes called cost of attendance, at Emerson in 2016-2017 was $62,515. Since Emerson College is a private institution, the price (which includes tuition, room, and board) is the same for both in- and out-of-state students. While $62,515 a year puts Emerson at the top-end of colleges when ranked by cost, keep in mind that most students do not pay the published price. Normally, students paying full price are from wealthy families with annual incomes exceeding $175,000 and who are outside of the top 30% of accepted students academically. The financial aid net price of an institution is calculated by tallying the need-based financial aid received by a student through grants and scholarships and deducting it from the list price of the college or university. The average net cost of Emerson for students receiving financial aid is $57,478. One of the predominant factors in determining how much financial aid a student will receive is their financial need. Typically, the lower the income level of a student’s family, the more financial aid they will receive. To give you an idea of what to expect to pay for Emerson, here are the average net prices for a student based on household income: Estimating your chance of getting into a college is not easy in today’s competitive environment. Thankfully, with our state-of-the-art software and data, we can analyze your academic and extracurricular profile and estimate your chances. Our profile analysis tool can also help you identify the improvement you need to make to enter your dream school. Merit aid is a type of aid awarded regardless of financial need, and it’s commonly given to students for achievements in the classroom, on the athletic field, or on stage though it can be granted for any number of reasons. The merit aid net price of a school is calculated by adding up any merit aid given to a student and subtracting it from the list price of the institution. In a survey of over 1,000 schools for merit aid generosity, Emerson ranked 526th. 36.2% of Emerson students without financial need receive merit aid and the average amount awarded to a student without need is $5,383—bringing the cost of attending Emerson College to $57,132 for students without financial need. Even after need-based grants and merit-based scholarships, students often need additional help paying for college. Many of these students turn to loans and Emerson students are no exception: 68% of Emerson students have loans, with the average amount borrowed via federal student loans being $7,464. One of the better ways to gauge how well a college will return on your investment is by knowing its outcomes. 79% of Emerson students graduate within six years of matriculating. The average salary after ten years for Emerson alumni is $46,600, which is just about even with the income of the average U.S. worker . The location of a college can also have an effect on total cost—housing, transportation, and grocery prices are just a few everyday expenses that vary from place to place and can add up over the course of four years. Boston, Massachusetts, (home of Emerson College) placed 10th on Kiplinger’s Most Expensive U.S. Cities to Live In 2019 . The cost of living index in Boston is 181.6 , meaning that it’s 81.6% more expensive to live in Boston than the average U.S. city or town. One of the primary factors for Boston’s high cost of living is housing, which is 213.9% higher than the national average. Students entering Emerson are required to live on campus for their first six semesters at school. Housing is not guaranteed for students after they fulfill their residency requirement, meaning many students will end up living off-campus during their time at Emerson. Here is what those students can expect to pay for an apartment in Boston: Emerson College’s Off-Campus Student Services can help with a variety of issues that off-campus students may encounter, from finding a roommate to learning how to cook. A part-time job is a popular way for students to offset some of the expense of college while attending. Boston provides a wide range of opportunities for students, including service positions, front desk jobs, and retail work. Massachusetts has one of the nation’s higher minimum wages at $12 an hour. Emerson has a robust Student Employment Program —at Emerson, three times more students are employed through this program than through the Federal Work Study program—designed to give students transferable skills relevant to their field of study. Available to any qualifying undergraduate, these positions are funded by individual departments at Emerson and are not related to any financial assistance programs. Scholarships are another excellent avenue for students to take toward reducing the cost of college. Some of Emerson’s scholarships, like the Luminary Scholarship and the Spotlight Scholarship, require no additional application (aside from the application to attend) for consideration. Other awards, like the Trustees Scholarship, necessitate an additional honors program application to be considered. Private scholarships also provide a path to reduce the expense of Emerson. The college maintains a webpage listing a host of scholarship opportunities available to Emerson students. One private scholarship prospective Emerson students should investigate is the National Merit Scholarship, which is awarded to top scorers on the PSAT/NMSQT. This award is given to roughly 7,500 students annually—winners receive a $2,500 one-time scholarship. Interested in learning more about this distinguished award? Read our article How to Qualify for the National Merit Scholarship Program . College finances can be confusing, but they don’t have to be. Our College Applications Program can help simplify the expense of higher education. We help students understand the real cost of college—including what they can expect to earn and owe when they graduate. Additionally, we can help students keep the cost of college down by discovering and applying for scholarships. On average, our students receive $25,000 more in scholarship awards than non- users.  

How to Fix the Nursing Shortage Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

How to Fix the Nursing Shortage - Essay Example In the United States, the shortage of RNs, coupled with an aging workforce, has become very alarming to the medical industry as the demand for the service has been increasing. This shortage has become a phenomenon, which is observed on a periodic basis, starting in the late 1950s, early 1970s, and late 1980s and has reemerged in this decade (Berliner & Ginzberg, 2002). According to the report of American Hospital Association in 2007 (Nursing School Degrees, 2009), hospitals need approximately 116,000 RNs to fill vacancies across states which is equivalent to 8.1 percent job vacancies. From an economic perspective, the demand for this service is unmet by the number of nursing professionals required which is also projected to worsen in the next decade as more nurses retire (Nevidjon & Erickson, 2006). If the issue is not resolved, nursing services demand will exceed supply by 30 percent in 2020. Based on Berliner & Ginzberg (2002), the growing concern in the nursing shortage can be att ributed to three general factors namely, (1) a decline in the number of new nurses entering the workforce; (2) the challenge of attracting new professional nurses to stay in the hospital; and (3) early retirement. Moreover, there are other vital factors to be considered that also affect the the declining nursing workforce such as (1) an aging population vis-a-vis nursing workforce; (2) a mismatch on diversity; (3) more options for women; (4) the generation gap; (5) work environment; (6) consumer activism; and (7) a ballooning health care system (Kimball & O'Neil, 2002). The impact of these factors could be greatly felt after the year 2010, the phase when the baby boomers are already enjoying their retirements. There are three causes affecting the level of nursing workforce. First is the need for a college degree limiting the number of potential applicants. Secondly, the various career options for women. And last but not the least, the nurses’ job dissatisfaction. Based on res earch, nurses who are satisfied are more likely to be productive, perform better, and stay at the hospital for longer periods (Raingruber & Ritter, 2003). Many strategies have been put in place to address this concern. According to Goodin (2003), 75 percent of the nurses surveyed in 2001 stated that in terms of the working environment, there was a decrease in quality of nursing care over the past two years because of increased patient load and pressure and limited time for direct patient care, which led to a decrease in job satisfaction. In terms of the issue in retirement of nurses in their mid and later 50s, nurses view this as disadvantagious to young RNs as they need more training and valuable skills from experienced workers. In an ER setting, part of the reasons why RNs would like to retire at this age are the physical constraints they experience as they function in everyday strenuous physical activities, high volume of ER admissions in a fast-paced urban setting without any he lp or assistance (Raingruber & Ritter, 2003). Moreover, the financial concerns seem to not affect the shortage of nurses. Increases in wages and benefit packages that vary across states apparently do not create an impact in the retention of nurses and the administrators should be made aware of this (Berliner & Ginzberg, 2002). Nurses, in some states, have been rewarded for their service

Labor Relations - Union Free or Unionized Environment Essay

Labor Relations - Union Free or Unionized Environment - Essay Example They also influence the employees’ social needs and the relationship between the management and the workers. They are however not a guarantee to increased productivity in the workplace, since they may limit the employees from giving the Company their best performance. This may be because of the union’s influence as it highlights some of the needs of workers XYZ does not fulfill (Sporgnardi, 2000). Making the employees aware of these needs may introduce and increase the number of strikes in the workplace. Differences between operating in a union-free environment and in a unionized environment In a union free environment, the decision the management makes solely concentrates on increasing productivity of the organization. This may be through directly investing in the organization, for example investing in intensive marketing of the company’s products. The indirect method involves corporate social responsibility, where the organization creates the best working envir onment and introduces awards for the best performing employee. In a Unionized environment however, there is presentation of the interests of two parties: the employer and the worker. The unions assume that the workers provide optimum services to the organization hence, strives to increase the wages of its members. They force the employers into increasing wages and introducing strategies in the organization that show that they treat them fairly in the workplace. This influences the decisions the management makes because it has to put into consideration the demands of the union (Kaufman, 2001). The Human Resource management is more effective in a union free environment than in a unionized environment. In a union free environment, the managers carry out research on how to improve the efficiency of the employees. They carry out activities such as job analysis, in order to develop job descriptions and job specifications that would enable them in formulating the salary structure for all i ts employees. The employees, in this environment, deal with the management directly in terms of payment increase or incentives. In a unionized environment, the union stands out as the sole bargaining agent. The employees compile a report of conditions in the workplace, which the union considers in order to come up with a collective agreement on how to solve conflicts in the organization, increasing the wages and how the management should improve the working conditions. Management in union free environment is unable to question the decisions the heads of department and top managers make in the organization. It is therefore not a guarantee that all their decisions are efficient in the productivity of the company. The workers union, on the other hand, is able to question any decision the employers make. This may result to the managers coming up with creative solutions that may be more productive. The CEO of XYZ may embrace the aristocratic style of leadership, where the management shou ld not question his decisions. Some of the decisions that he would make would have a negative impact on the employees, for example increasing the production line without increasing the number of employees in the workplace, hence overworking the employees. This may lead to production of low quality products that may result to reduced sales level. The union’

Business Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Business Law - Essay Example F12A (Meaning of dangerous driving) further states ‘For the purposes of sections 1 and 2 above a person is to be regarded as driving dangerously if (and, subject to subsection (2) below, only if) — (a) the way he drives falls far below what would be expected of a competent and careful driver, and (b) it would be obvious to a competent and careful driver that driving in that way would be dangerous’ (legislation.gov.uk). Moreover, section 131A (Compensation in respect of suspension) of the Road Traffic Act (1988) states ‘The Secretary of State must by regulations make a scheme for the making of payments by the Secretary of State to persons’ (legislation.gov.uk). He is offering service for a cost to prospective clients which is a contract implied and this comes under the purview of Consumer Protection Act. The Transport Company has the obligation of taking care of the passenger safety. Persons driving any type of vehicle are to have to be insured under R oad Traffic Act 1988, UK (legislation.gov.uk). Though the driver applied brakes to avoid hitting a lorry, it was the duty of the driver to notice the lorry well in advance and bring the vehicle under control, which could have averted applying brakes instantly. The passengers can make their claim against the driver’s insurance company. ... The passengers also have their responsibility of not violating the instructions during a journey and insist that the children should be restrained to the seats with adequate safety measures (Williams and Zador: 69). This can be applied here also. 1. b) 17 Hastings L.J. 165 (1965-1966)  Enterprise Liability: Some Exploratory Comments; Steffen, Roscoe  opines that the action of the employer is responsible for the employee action or the product. The proof of a defective service provided by any service provider to the consumer, is sufficient to claim compensation. Hence, in this case the Lancung Transport shall also become liable for the action of the driver. According to the ‘Owner Liability’ Law this can be grouped under ‘vicarious liability (hse.gov.uk). Annex to Paper HSC/04/131 of the Health and Safety Executive UK, part 13, states ‘ In summary, the Health and Safety Commission has not therefore achieved aim of denying all third parties the right to brin g civil claims for a breach of duty imposed by health and safety regulations. Further, and for the reasons out below, employers could be vicariously liable to third parties for an employee’s breach of statutory duty under regulation 14’ (hse.gov.uk). The Transport company can be held liable for the action of the driver, who is an employee working for the principal. The company or the employer is liable for the mistakes committed by its employees. The company can be held responsible either jointly or severally for the negligent act of the employee who is on their employment chart, under the doctrine of "respondeat superior" (Larson). As per this doctrine, an employer shall become responsible for the actions of the employee within the purview of their

Book review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Book review - Essay Example Rotman School of Business at the University of Toronto. Don Tapscott’s Grown Up Digital (2009) examines the life of people who have grown up in the digital age. Tapscott’s idea for the book initially arose in the 1990s after viewing the rise of internet technology within his own family. He realized that the current generation is demonstrating proficiency with the internet and digital technology which the past generations can’t keep up with and this is making them notably different from these past generations. As a strategic business analyst he realized that it would be important to gain an in-depth understanding of this phenomenon, so he commissioned a large scale study to investigate the issue; the book is comprised from information the study found and personal insights from the author. One of the foundational assumptions of the book is that the defining characteristic of the post-Generation X generation is the overwhelming influence the world-wide-web has had on their lives. In characterizing this influence, the author deems this generation the Net Generation (refusing to settle on the often used Generation Y moniker because it ignores the highly individual characteristics of this new generation). According to Tapscott, the Net Generation spans from 1977 to 1997, including even more births than the Baby Boomers. Indeed, they have been deemed the Echo Generation in response to the Baby Boomers’ initial post-war explosion. One of the major tenants of the research is that because of the current explosion of the internet, the world has become a much more integrated place. Since globalization has progressed to this degree the research necessarily focused on international elements as well as those within the United States. John Geraci, the project manager of the research, stated, â€Å"For the first time ever, we can speak of a worldwide youth generation† (Tapscott, pg. 23). As a result, the research included twelve countries,

Middle eastern cuisine Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Middle eastern cuisine - Essay Example Marriage entails two individuals to be together, living under the same roof, hopefully for the rest of their lives. Now what can one expect if this marriage is composed of spouses whose cultures greatly differ from each other?3 In answer to this, the paper aims to explore the different causes of issues in interracial marriages in an effort to find answers to why some individuals and societies view such marriages with hostility. Arab Religion and Culture Islam dominates the Arab world, 4 with their laws and culture revolving mainly around the beliefs and practices deemed lawful or acceptable by the religion.5 If one is aware of the Arab culture and beliefs, it is easy to see centuries-old practices and stereotypes that could be strikingly different from other cultures around the world. Even non-Muslim Arabs have a set of practices that are unique to this race. This region of the world is highly patriarchal, and even though the western idea of gender equality may have reached some soci eties, particularly non-Muslim societies, there is still a segregation of gender roles in every family unit.

Regression analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Regression analysis - Essay Example The change in the dependent value for a variation in the independent value is estimated in the regression analysis. Multiple regression takes into consideration all the assumptions of correlation. It takes place when the independent variable is dichotomy. In the above prescribed case, if the increase of men and women were to be considered separately; Multiple regression is used. In the case of linear correlation no power terms are found as it will not reflect curvilinear changes in independent variables. In the context of multiple regression the powers to the variables were found to represent the curvilinear variations in independent and dependent variables. Correlation is the percent of variance in the dependent explained by the given independent when all other independents are allowed to vary. In the final result the magnitude of r2 reflects not only the unique covariance it shares with the dependent, but uncontrolled effects on the dependent attributable to covariance the given in dependent shares with other independents in the model. For example in the above case the increase of male female population can be taken as covariance. 2. During the years 1790 to 1820, the correlation between the number of churches built in New England and the barrels of Rum imported into the region was a perfect 1.0.

The Difficult Justice of Melville and Kleist Essay Example for Free

The Difficult Justice of Melville and Kleist Essay According to many scholars, Billy Budd is the archetypal story of good vs. evil, the injustice of an imperfect world, and the impossible decisions good people are forced to make. On a first reading of the story, Captain Vere appears to be a symbol of merciless justice, cold efficiency, and the power of the State; a godlike figure with the power to take life when and where he sees fit. The captain, whose name is loosely translated as Truth, is caught in the middle between the two. He is fond of Billy, because of his friendly open nature. He dislikes Claggart because he instinctively feels that he is evil, â€Å"No sooner did the Commander observe who it was that deferentially stood awaiting his notice, than a peculiar expression came over him. It was not unlike that which uncontrollably will flit across the countenance of one at unawares encountering a person who, though known to him indeed, has hardly been long enough known for thorough knowledge, but something in whose aspect nevertheless now for the first provokes a vaguely repellent distaste†(Chapter 19, Melville). Vere appears to have an intuitive knowledge of what is right and just, which makes it all the more baffling why he chooses to disregard what he knows is right in favor of the expedient. Martin Greenberg, in â€Å"The Difficult Justice of Melville and Kleist,† cites two arguments for Vere’s decision to punish Billy: first, is the loss of free will that follows enlistment in the Navy; second, the fear of mutiny and chaos is extremely compelling to a high ranking official like a captain (4). Greenberg and Melville understand Vere’s predicament as a man of the military. Had he been soft, perhaps more lives would have been lost through mutiny, and the cohesion of the Royal Navy might have been destroyed. The story is set in 1797, following the American Revolt against the Crown. In such tumultuous times, any form of clemency—especially in the armed forces—would be seen as a weakness for the unscrupulous to exploit. The story of false accusations against an innocent has a long history in the literary, Biblical, and historical traditions. Quite often, the person in charge of making such life or death decisions is either unable or unwilling to do the right thing (i. e. Pontius Pilate). Pontius Pilate and Captain Vere have both sent innocent men to their deaths for fear of social unrest, or an end to the status quo. In the realm of ethics, their action would have been unconscionable, but in politics, leaders must abide by the Macchiavellian dictate to When Vere calls upon Billy to answer his accuser, he believed that he would be quickly exonerated because there is nothing in his nature that would give credence to such an outlandish allegation. Until Billy strikes Claggart dead in a fit of incoherent rage, In Martin Greenberg’s analysis of Billy Budd, he remarks on the Biblical imagery immanent in the descriptions of John Claggart and Billy Budd, The two of them are the great forces of light and dark in the miniature universe of the ship, â€Å"And that world provides, like the great world itself, a Satan, harsher than his harsh name of Claggart, as sinisterly handsome as Billy is angelically—modeled on Milton’s Satan, despairing like him, but ignoble†(5). One of the ironies in examining this supposed lack of free will, is that it is an ineffable part of the Christian doctrine; yet those that are obedient to this higher power often feel compelled to perform actions they never would have dreamt of doing. Melville makes frequent allusions to Abraham and Isaac, with respect to Abraham’s near sacrifice of his son on the mountainside. Greenberg remarks upon this likeness at length in his analysis, â€Å"The two are imagined as embracing like father and son, like Jacob and Isaac, in the privacy of the sailor’s confinement, where as if it were a sacred precinct, the storyteller doesn’t venture to enter. Each experiences a sacrificial exaltation: Billy, sacrificing his life at the behest of the father-god of his world, exclaims â€Å"God bless Captain Vere! † just before he drops from the yardarm; the Captain, as the one who condemns to death, makes even the harder sacrifice (according to the narrator at the behest of his father-god the King†(5). With the death of Claggart, Vere argued for Billy’s death in a military court. The officers present knew that he was innocent of mutiny and homicide. He did not have the mental capacity to engineer such a coup, nor was he aware of his own strength. All he wanted to do was stop the lies coming out of Claggart’s mouth, and he reacted physically since he was unable to do so verbally. Would it not be a crime to kill someone that is mentally handicapped and too strong for his own good? Would it not be better to set him ashore in England or the Americas, then restore order to the At the beginning of Chapter 23, when sentence was to be passed upon the approved, the narrator presented a rather sympathetic portrait of Captain Vere, â€Å"The austere devotee of military duty, letting himself melt back into what remains primeval in our formalized humanity, may in the end have caught Billy to his heart even as Abraham may have caught young Isaac on the brink of resolutely offering him up in obedience to the exacting behest† (Melville). Like Christ, Billy had done no wrong, and perhaps this very perfection makes him less sympathetic than Captain Vere to Melville. As fallible human beings, some have more power than they know how to wield, and some decisions come at the price of the soul. It is Greenberg’s contention that the supernatural powers of the one true God, a pantheon of gods, heaven, or angels are no match for earthly injustice. The crucifixion of Jesus, the execution of Billy, and the avenging of Claggart substantiates this cynical world view. Works Cited Greenberg, Martin. â€Å"The Difficult Justice of Melville Kleist. † The New Criterion. (March, 2005): 3-11 Melville, Herman. Billy Budd, Sailor. Retrieved 5 Apr. 2007 from http://xroads. virginia. edu/~HYPER/bb/BillyBudd. html

Bargaining Power Of Suppliers

Bargaining Power Of Suppliers This report serves a number of major purposes. First of all, it seeks to understand the development of Information Systems IS/ Information Technology IT theory. Secondly, it narrows the scope to enterprise value chain to evaluate the current practice in this area. Finally, it seeks to evaluate and analyze the future of the companies studied in relation to IS/ IT. 1.2 Definition of Key Concepts The terms e-business and e-commerce are often used interchangeably but they do not mean the same thing. E-commerce means using IT to buy and sell goods and services. E-business is a broader term, covering not just goods and services exchanges, but also all forms of business conducted using electronic transmission of data and information. E-business began when customers and suppliers recognized the advantages of exchanging documents such as purchase orders and invoices electronically, rather than through the postal service. This electronic data interchange EDI could speed ordering and fulfillment dramatically. The advent of the internet allowed businesses, organizations, and individuals to publish World Wide Web pages and communicate to broader audiences. At first, web pages were mirrors of paper documents. But as they increased in sophistication, users recognized that there were things that they could do with Web pages that were not possible with paper media. As internet usage and Web development evolved, managers learned to take advantage of the internets unique nature in many ways. For example, retailers realized changing the price of an item required a few key strokes on the internet versus reprinting promotional materials and price lists in an offline environment. The transparency of the internet, or the ability for mass instantaneous sharing of information also created an almost perfectly efficient marketplace for goods and services. The next stage in the evolution of e-business was to distribute its use throughout an organization. This came in the form of intranets. Businesses created these internal internets to allow employees to communicate with one another and exchange information. Once enterprises mastered internal communication through their intranets, they turned outwards. The link to customers occurred early on. The rest of the supply chain linkage took place in the next stage of the evolution as businesses began expanding on their connection to suppliers, customers and distributors. These included adding supply chain management and customer relationship management functionality. Portals allowed customers and suppliers to link more closely with an enterprise. The current state of e-business is really c-business where the c stands for collaborative. In c-business, the boundaries among enterprises become blurred. Businesses up and down the supply chain work together to achieve objectives that maximize profitability for all of them. 1.3 Overview of the Report Section 1: Introduction Objective of the report Definition of key concepts Overview of the report Section 2: Review of Literature 2.1 Literature review 2.2 General theory 2.3 Research area 2.4 Rationale 2.5 Importance of research area 2.6 Example of e-business application Section 3: Case Analysis 3.1 Case Study 1 3.2 Case Study 2 3.3 Case Study 3 Section 4: Evaluation of the Cases 4.1 Comparison 4.2 Recommendation Section 5 Executive Summary SECTION 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1 Literature Review IT/ IS has been used by companies for over forty years. Initially, their usage was primitive by todays standards, but over time, improvements in computer technology have rendered IS/ IT to be an integral part of the business. Yet, the study of IS/ IT in relation to management is a somewhat recent discipline. Initial research on IT/ IS tended to be more descriptive than empirical since the basic models that are currently used were not yet formulated. These research papers also tended to be overly optimistic about the future of IT/ IS in terms of the benefits they bring to business enterprises. Later on, research in the area took on a more balanced tone as the limitations of IS/ IT were also highlighted. It has also during this time than various strategic management models were incorporated into the framework for IS/ IT. 2.2 General Theory Now let us examine three theories that relate to e-business. 2.2.1 Porters Five Forces According to Michael Porter (1990), an industry is influenced by five major forces and he developed this idea into a comprehensive model. Termed the Five Forces Model, it has greatly influenced strategic management thinking for the past two decades. These five forces are the bargaining power of buyers, the bargaining power of suppliers, the new entrants, the threat of substitutes, and rivalry. Bargaining Power of Buyers The bargaining power of buyers refers to the influence consumers have on an industry. Generally, if consumers have very high bargaining power, there are many suppliers competing for a very limited number of buyers (Porter, 1990). As a result, it is the buyer who will dictate the price of goods and services. Buyers have greater power when there are few of them and they command a significant market share, or when they purchase a sizeable proportion of the goods produced in an industry (David, 2009). Also, buyers are powerful when they can threaten to buy products from rival firms. This is called backward integration (Griffin, 2001). On the other hand, buyers are weak if manufacturers threaten forward integration in which the manufacturers take over the distribution and retailing channels (Eitman et al, 2007). Buyers are also in a weak position if there is great difficulty in switching to alternative products and switching costs are high. Bargaining Power of Suppliers The second force is the bargaining power of suppliers (Porter, 1990). All companies that manufacture goods need to obtain raw materials from external parties or suppliers. Hence, it is imperative that companies establish good relationships with their suppliers so as to get favourable prices and a steady supply of raw material. Yet, the supplier-manufacturer relationship is rarely one of equals (Griffin, 2001). Normally, one party has the upper hand. Suppliers have greater bargaining power if there are few of them so they can dictate terms to the customers who are at their mercy (David, 2009). Threat of New Entrants The third force is the threat of new entrants (Porter, 1990). New entrants to a market can seriously affect the market share of existing members and this is a constant source of anxiety for companies. In an ideal free market system, a company can enter and exit a market with the greatest ease and that profits will be nominal. However, in the real world, there are numerous barriers to entry, some of which are the result of economics, while others are the outcome of government intervention (Rugman and Hodgetts, 1995). Threat of Substitutes The fourth is the threat of substitutes, which refers to products in other industries (Porter, 1990). If the costs of the products in a particular industry are too high, customers might switch to products in other industries. Price is not the only variable but changes in technology have the potential to make users flock to rivals (David, 2009). Rivalry Among Firms The final force in Porters framework is rivalry among firms (Porter, 1990). Rivalry is very high when there are a large number of firms in a saturated market, high fixed costs, high storage costs and low switching costs (Barney, 2007). According to Porter, an enterprise can adopt one of four strategies to deal with the five forces in its industry. They are cost leadership, differentiation, cost focus and focused differentiation. IT can assist a firm in achieving these strategies. For example, to attain low cost, the company can adopt production engineering systems whereas to achieve differentiation, it can use computer aided design. 2.2.2 Value Chain The value chain is defined as a sequence of activities that should contribute more to the ultimate value of the product than to its costs. Products produced by an organization rely on different activities of the organization and use different resources along the value chain depending on their specifications. Essentially, all products flow through the value chain, which begins with research, development and engineering and then moves through manufacturing and continues on to customers. The companys value chain is used to identify opportunities that give competitive advantage. Basically, there are two broad categories of a firms activities. They are primary activities, consisting of the creation, marketing and delivery of products and support activities which provide support for primary activities. IT is used to transform the way value activities are conducted and to improve linkages throughout the value chain to give the company greater flexibility. According to Porter and Miller 1985, IT plays a strategic role in an industry that has high information intensity in the product and value chain itself. 2.2.3 Scott Mortons Model Morton improvises and refines Porters model. Morton asserts that the five forces that influence an organizations objectives are its structure, management processes, individuals and roles, technology and strategy. These in turn contribute to five levels of IT-induced reconfiguration. At the lower degree of business transformation, they are termed evolutionary levels. At the lowest level, there is localized exploitation in which the main objectives are domestic effectiveness and efficiency. At level two, there is internal integration between different applications and systems. Cooperation and coordination enhance efficiency and effectiveness here. At a higher degree of business transformation, they are termed revolutionary levels. Level three involves business process redesign which consists of a rigorous change in the company value chain. Level four concerns business network redesign for the reconfiguration of the tasks and scopes of the enterprise network involved in the creation and delivery of products and services. The final and highest level is business scope redefinition in which there is a migration of functions across the companys borders that ultimately change the very nature of the business. 2.3 Research Area This paper focuses on the enterprise value chain of three very different companies. They are Tupperware, Toyota and Facebook. 2.4 Rationale The rationale for the selection of these three companies is to explain how e-business is applied to different industries. Tupperware is a well known manufacturer of high quality plastic containers, Toyota is the worlds largest car maker and Facebook is the biggest online social network site on earth. They are all very different businesses, yet they share one thing in common the usage of e-business in their value chain. The degree of success each business experiences through e-business vis-Ã  -vis their value chain will be discussed in the analysis section. 2.5 Importance of Research Area E-business has become an integral part of the modern corporation and is a means of achieving competitive advantage. Besides that, it also creates opportunities for many third party services. For these reasons, it is vital to critically examine what exactly e-business can do for an enterprise. To demonstrate, the following SWOT analysis is done: 2.5.1 Strengths Around the clock business operation Convenient, fast and effective Global outreach Lower operation cost Lower initial investment 2.5.2 Weaknesses No direct interaction between buyer and seller Low customer penetration 2.5.3 Opportunities The number of people using the internet is increasing daily Over time, people will grow accustomed to doing transactions online 2.5.4 Threats Considerable risks such as privacy issues, security concerns, transaction processing and business policy issues. 2.6 Examples of e-business Applications There are many examples of e-business applications, the most common being EDI which is the computer-to-computer exchange of business documents. Another example is in collaborative commerce. For example, airlines have partnered to create Orbitz, an online travel service that searches the partner airline database for flights. The site also allows users to purchase hotel rooms, rent cars and other services. SECTION 3: CASE ANALYSIS 3.1 Case Study 1: Tupperware Tupperware is a multi-billion dollar United States based manufacturer of plastic food storage containers that has a presence in over 100 countries worldwide. Recently, the company altered its distribution model to a multilevel compensation structure. This inevitably increased the volume of paperwork faced by multilevel sales consultants who found less time to do actual sales. In addition, the order entry system was insufficient to cope with peak sales demands. To overcome these problems, the company implemented MyTupperware which is a web-based order management system. The first problem was solved because the task of entering orders was shifted from distributors to sales consultants. The second problem was solved because the integrated and streamlined communications between the relevant parties and provided better support in the promotion and sales of products. 3.2 Case Study 2: Toyota From its humble beginnings in Japan, Toyota Motors emerged as the worlds largest and most profitable car maker in April 2007. It accomplished this major feat through unparalleled excellence in its production process, and indeed throughout its entire value chain. Central to this success was the Toyota Production System TPS. Initially, Toyota faced the same problems as other automobile makers including slow product design time, uneven quality of production, wastage and obsolescence. These factors hampered the companys ability to achieve competitive advantage. Consequently, Toyota critically examined its strengths weaknesses, though not in the way Western companies do. Toyota adopted the Japanese approach of kaizen, which is a philosophy of continuous improvement by eliminating wastage. By harnessing the power of IS/ IT in its e-business, the company created the TPS as a means to achieve competitive advantage. Consequently, the company achieved tremendous success and its manufacturing process was deemed the gold standard in quality manufacturing at low cost. Unfortunately, this was not to last. In the last two years, Toyota suffered its worst catastrophe in years. Cars produced by its U.S. plant suffered from faulty brakes and there were defects in cars produced by other plants. Consequently, the company made a massive recall, which seriously eroded the reputation of the company. Perhaps the company overextended itself or was lulled into a false sense of complacency. Regardless, the much vaunted TPS has come under scrutiny as people question how a system that was deemed close to perfection could cause such egregious errors. It remains to be seen how Toyota will remedy the situation. 3.3 Case Study 3: Facebook By now, the story of Facebooks founding is well known, thanks to a number of books and the Hollywood movie The Social Network. A Harvard student named Mark Zuckerberg founded the site in 2004 as an online social network for Harvard students before establishing it as a company. Though there are other online social network sites, the secret to Facebooks success lies not just in the features it provides, but the clear user interface which makes it appealing and easy to use. From its humble origins, Facebook has now over 500 million users and has been valued at US50 billion. While the company is phenomenally successful, it is constantly plagued by issues concerning its privacy. Since Facebooks business model is such that it does not charge users for the services it provides, its source of revenue comes from advertising and data mining. This has led to repeated concerns about the violation of users privacy by selling their personal information to advertising companies who publicly share such private information. In addition, there are concerns that users private information is accessible to the public with very dangerous consequences like identity theft. One major error that Facebook made was its Beacon advertising service which informed users when their friends made purchases and were involved in other activities outside of Facebook. Users did not agree to share this information and this caused a public backlash and the company had to rescind the service. Similarly, when Facebook launched its news feed feature, users baulked at the infringement of privacy. They did not want Facebook to post updates whenever they updated their profile, added friends or changed their settings. However, Zuckerberg addressed this problem much better by making a public apology and explaining the merits of this system. While some users were still resistant, the explanation won over many and today, the news feed is one of Facebooks most popular services and is emulated by other online social network sites. A third problem Facebook has is the handling of users personal information when they want to delete their profiles. Unlike other network sites, Facebook made it almost impossible for users to delete their accounts and copies of their personal information were stored indefinitely. This caused a backlash and Facebook has since made it much easier for users to delete their accounts. SECTION 4: EVALUATION OF CASES Case Security Ease of using site Transparency Effectiveness of e-business Case 1 High Average Low Highly effective Case 2 High Average Moderate Highly effective Case 3 Moderate Easy High Highly effective 4.1 Comparison Overall, it appears that of the three, Facebook has been the most successful in applying e-business since its entire business model is based on it. The other two are examples of traditional firms that employ e-business to improve their value chain. Tupperware uses the least extensive form of e-business as it is confined to its sales and after sales services rather than the manufacturing process. Toyota uses e-business extensively throughout its value chain as can be seen in the TPS. However, recent developments indicate that its e-business application may not be as successful as was previously thought. Hence, Facebook is the most successful of the three in harnessing e-business to gain competitive advantage though it must be reminded here that the company still struggles with some security issues. 4.2 Recommendation It is recommended that Tupperware uses e-business more extensively throughout its value chain to include the planning and design and manufacturing process. Toyota should reevaluate its TPS to identify weaknesses in the current system and improve them. Facebook on the other hand should use e-business to gather more feedback from its customers about its services, particularly privacy issues and take them seriously.

On the Road to a Unified Science of Culture :: Biology Essays Research Papers

On the Road to a Unified Science of Culture: Beware potholes Culture has developed far beyond the requirements for survival, such that our forays into art, music and pure mathematics are 'useless' from the biological point of view. In "The Selfish Gene", Dawkins (1987)5 introduced the concept of the meme, analogous to but separate from the gene, to explain this puzzling phenomenon. The resultant field, memetics, has been a recent battleground between various disciplines. While a natural science approach to culture remains the stage for the debut of a much hoped-for unified science, interdisciplinary work has yet to transcend traditional academic lines. Ignorance, prejudice and territoriality pose serious hurdles to the synthesis of science, which must, very simply, begin with the scientist. Memes are units of cultural transmission propagated by imitation and may include ideas such as natural selection and fairy tales, behaviors such as shaking hands and sitting upright, and styles such as baggy pants and slang. Like genetic evolution, memetic evolution fits the classic 'survival of the fittest' scenario: the process of replication produces variation that is acted upon by selection. However, memes exist for their own sake, not for the sake of man or the sake of genes. In this sense, they are 'selfish', and the separation means that human culture can no longer be explained in terms of biological advantage (Dawkins 1987)5. Memetics sprang from Dawkins' meme concept as a natural science approach to culture, and many grand visions have been penned for this, the final frontier of the unified science. Wilson exhorts the synthetic scientific method, which he terms consilience. He imagines connecting causal explanations across all levels of organization and between all branches of learning as the "Ariadne's thread" that is needed to traverse "the labyrinth of empirical knowledge" (Wilson 1998: 73)10 . Similarly, Plotkin (2002)9 thinks of complete intertheoretic reduction as the unattainable ideal, but believes that the possibility of some reduction by explanatory causal mechanisms extending across some levels is sufficient. He emphasizes that unified science requires all science to be done, and so does not sideline the work of social scientists. More importantly, both scientists believe a unified science of culture is possible because humans are products of nature and natural processes. Although a relatively new field, thus far held at bay by conceptual disagreements, the ranks from which the meme debate pulls its opponents is admirably wide.

The Moral Lessons of Shakespeares Macbeth :: GCSE English Literature Coursework

Moral Lessons of Macbeth "Your hand, your tongue: look like the innocent flower, but be the serpent under't." (Shakespeare 1.5. 64-66) Throughout Shakespeare's Macbeth, things are not always as they seem. Deception in this play is always present, especially with the main characters - Macbeth and Lady Macbeth. Lady Macbeth is the most skilled at persuading others, especially her husband, into believe things that are not true. The above quote, spoken by Lady Macbeth to her husband, shows exactly how manipulative and deceiving she can be. She is telling Macbeth to look and act pure, but to be evil inside. Macbeth, evidently led by his wife, but also by his own ambitions, is likewise guilty of deception. He deceives his best friend Banquo, King Duncan, as well as his public. Lady Macbeth and Macbeth also try to use denial and rationalization to deceive themselves. This self-deception leads to grave circumstances for them both. Macbeth is forced into further and further lies, making life difficult and u nbearable. Lady Macbeth is also caught in the depths of deception and eventually kills herself. Therefore, it is obvious that the main characters of Shakespeare's Macbeth are all negatively affected by the recurring theme of deception. Throughout the play, Lady Macbeth uses her ability to mislead others in many ways. First of all, she decides to use deception to push her husband's ambition to be king. ...Hie thee hither, that I may pour my spirits in thine ear, and chastise with the valour of my tongue all that impedes thee from the golden round...(1.5.25-28) Lady Macbeth believes that, to be successful in his ambitions, Macbeth must rise above his goodness and accept her evil ways. She knows that the process of making her husband believe what she wants may not be easy. Lady Macbeth has to be cunning, and she is up for the challenge. The thought of being in power - the King and Queen of Scotland - drives her and she cannot be stopped. Lady Macbeth often has to reinforce her immoral beliefs to her husband, giving him a boost. Was the hope drunk, wherein you dressed yourself? hath it slept since, and wakes it now, to look so green and pale at what it did so freely? From this time such I account thy love.

The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu Essay -- The Heian Period, Japan

Being a student interested in the field of biology, one knows that studying life in the past plays an important role in the history of organisms that lived on this earth. Similarly, being Japanese, studying the past of how Japanese were plays an important role in Japanese history. Despite all the general aspects of life that have changed from the Heian period, the one idea that has definitely not changed is the romantic relationships between a man and woman. Though the general concept is the same, from reading The Tale of Genji, it is what was considered the ideal woman and ideal man that were both surprising and thus worth discussing. Written around 978 by Murasaki Shikibu, The Tale of Genji, regarded as the world’s first novel, is an excellent source describing the ideal woman and man during the Heian period. Life in the Heian period revolved around the court and the social hierarchy that came with it. Thus it is completely understandable that one of the most important characteristics of an ideal man or woman was the person’s ranking. For most women, especially those in the lower ranks, to be able to give birth to a son whose father was of high rank would up her own status. Note however, though that she did not need to marry the father, and this was indeed the case for many women. The main reason for this is because men, especially those with high ranks like Genji and Tà µ no Chujà µ had affairs with many women regardless to who they themselves were married. Genji and Tà µ no Chujà µ both knew that because of their high rank, they could for the most part, get any woman they wished. Yet, it is b ecause of this that in The Tale of Genji, they could actually seriously consider various characteristics that they feel represente... ...whereas the ideal man would be one of high rank, faithful and had a tenderness and eloquence. The main trait discussed that would still apply personally as an ideal man and woman though would be one who was faithful. Though appearance is still a factor, what is considered beautiful has changed and a social hierarchy in the United States does not exist today. All in all, a relationship between a man and woman is an important aspect of anyone’s life, regardless of the place in history, and studying these aspects from a great novel like The Tale of Genji, plays a vital role in understanding Japanese culture. Works Cited Shikibu, Murasaki. The Tale of Genji. NY, NY: Penguin Classics, 2001. 319. Print. Smits, Gregory. "The Heian Period Aristocrats." East Asian History. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Feb 2011. .

ASL Challenge Paper

ASL is more than a language; it is a miracle. I find myself often perplexed by the difficulty that must have come with making a language solely from hands. It is amazing that there was a nationwide speaking of the hands for the deaf community and anyone who is interested to learn can Join in easily, but only if they can hoop over some of the languages major challenges. In the article â€Å"Why is Learning American Sign Language a Challenge? † by Professor Mike Kent, he discusses the top 5 ASL challenges he has come across.The first challenge being social dominance patterns and attitude. This challenge is definitely a struggle for many new learners. People think that the deaf are nothing more than handicapped human beings that can't do normal acts like the rest of the population. Referring to the motivation portion of Professor Kent's article we find that there are 2 types of motivations when it comes to learning ASL. Thus the view that a person has of being above the deaf most commonly comes from the instrumentally motivated because they often lack the contact with the deaf community.The nstrumentally motivated have ties to the deaf community and are less likely to think of themselves as above the hearing impaired. The aspect of culture and attitude also fits in with the social dominance challenge. It is challenging to master the correct sign etiquette in the culture and also you must have a positive attitude about sign language because a negative attitude is easy to spot. A second challenge when it comes to learning American Sign Language people often run into is properties of Ll grammar transferred into L2 grammar. This may be the second most challenging bstacle to get over when learning ASL.The constant grammatical difference especially with question sentence with the W question words. In English we are used to putting the question word at the beginning of our sentences but in ASL the words are placed at the end. Like in the article the example of a n ative Spanish speaker learning English is a brilliant comparison. Congruence, which is personally the most challenging aspect of American Sign Language for me, is another challenge mentioned in the article. It is definitely hard to gain the confidence to communicate roudly in a brand new language instead of a native language.The constant fear of messing up, not fitting in, or sounding/looking Just plain stupid is always leering. This is especially the case in ASL. There are many things to take in consideration when it comes to ASL such as proper etiquette which also goes along with culture. From getting a person attention, having a conversation in a crowded room, or being in the way of a two peoples sight view of signs. There are exact ways that would be appropriate to handle these things but a slight mishap can make you come off as ery rude.This is definitely a major challenge when learning a new language because it all comes down to different cultures. ASL is like a culture in its way that it has its own acceptable behaviors and unacceptable behaviors. A four challenge mentioned is language shock. ASL is something that definitely takes a while to get used to. When someone all of a sudden has to use there hands in a certain way and also bend their fingers and arms at angles that are not normally used. That's why it is super important to do hand stretchers so it is possible to get the most hand motion and ot mouth or say what you are trying to sign.This is very difficult and can become a major challenge in the very beginning and can be frustrating but it's essential to only use your hands when communicating with a deaf person. Patience is key. The final challenge is that there are two types of motivations that gives people the will to learn sign language. These people fall into 2 categories. One, instrumental motivation is for all those people that want to benefit in there career with another language or are asked to take classes for a Job. This person will Ju st go to pass the tests but will quickly learn and forget the language.Even in our case as students it is technically an intellectual motivation for our degree but for many there is an actual reason they wanted to take ASL. When there is an outside motivation people are categorized as integratively motivated learners. These people have a significant person in their life that is deaf and only communicates through ASL or a friend or a colleague. Their motivation is stronger and the language will stick with them longer. If I had to choose ne of the above 5 most challenging things about ASL, my personal challenge would be congruence and culture.As the article mentioned sometimes ASL can feel like a revolving door that becomes too late to enter if you miss some parts for new learners. I have found myself feeling this way often. Once a conversation starts going at (which often seem hyper speed) I feel helpless because I don't know what's going on when I miss important parts of the convers ation. I find it also very challenging to not want to use my voice as I sign. I know deaf people I am communicating with won't hear it, but hey will see my mouth moving and that can often be distracting.As for Professor Kent's summary I would say I would agree with what he says. ASL is a language that can be easily forgotten and I do think that learners go through various stages. I remember when I started learning I was super excited because I was learning and memorizing everything so quickly and was quite impressed with myself. Then it does become challenging with the implied grammar rules and culture shock challenges. If you do not continue learning American Sign Language it will be forgotten.

Representation of Gays in Hollywood

During the production code, there were very few representations of gay and lesbians on screen. The only few representations were filled with stereotypes and lacked variety. People will call each other when they see another gay person on TV. The story lines in movies featuring gays and lesbians were controlled and restricted. The whole story was not often told in gay movies. Even after the code was lifted, Hollywood still struggled with their portrayal of gays, the â€Å"proud sissies† and the â€Å"regular gays† who were not as flamboyant. In today’s movies, those issues are still prevalent. Gay scenes are laced with comedy and as a form of punishment.There are not enough genuine, authentic gay love stories anymore. The notion of visibility at any cause still exists today, maybe not as difficult as it was in the 30’s. I am starting to believe that films do not creates stereotypes but rather the people behind these films. Directors, producers and even actor s creates and perpetuate the stereotypes and feeds them to the audience. Simply changing the films alone will not be enough to solve gay stereotypes in Hollywood. The change should start with the people making the films. Perhaps we need more gay directors or less stereotyping straight directors or better yet directors with open minds.Fleming disagrees with Russo’s views on gay visibility in Hollywood. She is not as optimistic as Russo. Fleming’s point about the lack of lesbian perspective in Hollywood films was very interesting. But what stood out the most was the point she made about the dilemma of gays in Hollywood. If they become more visible, they open themselves up for ridicule but if they remain invisible then they are allow Hollywood to keep portraying them stereotypically. Overall, Fleming believes that there should be more range and diversity in gay story lines and I

8 Tips for Eating Well Essay

1. Base your meals on starchy foods – an example of starchy foods would be: potato, cereal, pasta, rice and bread. If you choose whole grain varieties they will contain more fibre which is good for you. 2. Eat lots of fruit and vegetables – ideally we should be eating 5 portions of fruit and veg a day. Even if you drink a glass of unsweetened fruit juice that will even count as 1 of your 5 a day. 3. Eat more fish – fish includes protein, vitamins and minerals. Even if you have at least 2 portions a week that would be fantastic. Anybody who eats fish on a regular bases should try a wide variety of fish such as oily, smoked, frozen, fresh and canned. 4. Cut down on saturated fat and sugar – you do need a little bit of fat in your body but you don’t need so much fat because it is not good for you. Another risk of having lots of fat in your diet is that it can cause heart disease. Saturated fat is found in many foods, such as hard cheese, cakes, biscuit s, sausages, cream, butter, lard pies, chips, burgers, chicken nuggets, ice cream and others.. so try to cut down on these. 5. Eat less salt – If you buy a ready-made meal from the shops you may not know but it will contain quite a lot of salt in, which is ok but if you have to much of this, it will be a problem because it raises your blood pressure and if you have high blood pressure you are more likely to have a stroke or heart disease. Adults and children over 11 should eat no more than 6g of salt a day. Younger children should have even less. 6. Get active and be a healthy weight – fatty foods has lots of energy in it and if you don’t use up all of that energy then it is stored in the body as fat which can lead to over weightiness and obesity. If you are overweight or underweight that is not good and it means that you are not healthy. So to make sure you are healthy you should be more active for instance even doing a 30 minute work out on your wii fit can make a difference. 7. Don’t get thirsty –drink more water and stay hydrated. If you don’t have as much water then this can cause dehydration which basically means lack of water. On a daily bases you should at least have 8 glasses of water a day. If you don’t like water then you can have milk or fruit juice but do try to avoid fizzy drinks and sugary drinks. 8. Don’t skip breakfast – do not skip breakfast because breakfast is the most important meal of the day. Breakfast is the first meal you have after you wake up so to make sure you have that fibre in you, you need to make sure you have it so you can concentrate throughout the day. Cereal is very high in fibre so that would be a good option for breakfast. It is very important in our diet. http://www.activ8-fitness.com/fitness/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/STARCHY.jpg THINGS THAT YOU SHOULD EAT/DO STACHY FOODS http://www.advice.salford.ac.uk/cms/resources/uploads/Image/Collection%20of%20fruit%20&%20veg.jpg FRUIT&VEG FATS&SUGARS FISH http://chesserfastfoodtakeaway.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/fish_and_chips.jpghttp://images4.fanpop.com/image/photos/24000000/ice-cream-Yummy-ice-cream-24070273-696-1250.jpg NOT TO MUCH SALT BREAKFAST http://www.mistile.com/Content/uploads/Breakfast.jpghttp://3.bp.blogspot.com/-RCReZGvRBeU/TzmQFoqRIYI/AAAAAAAACRE/aOtjjIP7gTM/s1600/plastic-water-bottle.jpgDRINK WATER BEING ACTIVE&HEALTHY WEIGHT http://www.halanmediacorp.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/jogging-boost-brain-power.jpghttp://www.ericcressey.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/cutting-back-on-salt-01-af.jpg

Obesity and Fast Food Essay

January 2009 Abstract. We investigate the health consequences of changes in the supply of fast food using the exact geographical location of fast food restaurants. Specifically, we ask how the supply of fast food affects the obesity rates of 3 million school children and the weight gain of over 1 million pregnant women. We find that among 9th grade children, a fast food restaurant within a tenth of a mile of a school is associated with at least a 5. 2 percent increase in obesity rates. There is no discernable effect at . 25 miles and at . 5 miles. Among pregnant women, models with mother fixed effects indicate that a fast food restaurant within a half mile of her residence results in a 2. 5 percent increase in the probability of gaining over 20 kilos. The effect is larger, but less precisely estimated at . 1 miles. In contrast, the presence of non-fast food restaurants is uncorrelated with obesity and weight gain. Moreover, proximity to future fast food restaurants is uncorrelated with current obesity and weight gain, conditional on current proximity to fast food. The implied effects of fast-food on caloric intake are at least one order of magnitude smaller for mothers, which suggests that they are less constrained by travel costs than school children. Our results imply that policies restricting access to fast food near schools could have significant effects on obesity among school children, but similar policies restricting the availability of fast food in residential areas are unlikely to have large effects on adults. The authors thank John Cawley and participants in seminars at the NBER Summer Institute, the 2009 AEA Meetings, the ASSA 2009 Meetings, the Federal Reserve Banks of New York and Chicago, The New School, the Tinbergen Institute, the Rady School at UCSD, and Williams College for helpful comments. We thank Cecilia Machado, Emilia Simeonova, Johannes Schmeider, and Joshua Goodman for excellent research assistance. We thank Glenn Copeland of the Michigan Dept. of Community Health, Katherine Hempstead and Matthew Weinberg of the New Jersey Department of Health and Senior Services, Craig Edelman of the Pennsylvania Dept. of Health, Rachelle Moore of the Texas Dept. of State Health Services, and Gary Sammet and Joseph Shiveley of the Florida Department of Health for their help in accessing the data. The authors are solely responsible for the use that has been made of the data and for the contents of this article. 1 1. Introduction The prevalence of obesity and obesity related diseases has increased rapidly in the U. S. since the mid 1970s. At the same time, the number of fast food restaurants more than doubled over the same time period, while the number of other restaurants grew at a much slower pace according to the Census of Retail Trade (Chou, Grossman, and Saffer, 2004). In the public debate over obesity it is often assumed that the widespread availability of fast food restaurants is an important determinant of the dramatic increases in obesity rates. Policy makers in several cities have responded by restricting the availability or content of fast food, or by requiring posting of the caloric content of the meals (Mcbride, 2008; Mair et al. 2005). But the evidence linking fast food and obesity is not strong. Much of it is based on correlational studies in small data sets. In this paper we seek to identify the causal effect of increases in the supply of fast food restaurants on obesity rates. Specifically, using a detailed dataset on the exact geographical location restaurant establishments, we ask how proximity to fast food affects the obesity rates of 3 million school children and the weight gain of over 1 million pregnant women. For school children, we observe obesity rates for 9th graders in California over several years, and we are therefore able to estimate cross-sectional as well fixed effects models that control for characteristics of schools and neighborhoods. For mothers, we employ the information on weight gain during pregnancy reported in the Vital Statistics data for Michigan, New Jersey, and Texas covering fifteen years. 1 We focus on women who have at least two children so that we can follow a given woman across two pregnancies and estimate models that include mother fixed effects. The design employed in this study allows for a more precise identification of the effect of fast-food on obesity compared to the previous literature (summarized in Section 2). First, we observe information on weight for millions of individuals compared to at most tens of thousand in the standard data sets with weight information such as the NHANES and the BRFSS. This substantially increases the power of our estimates. Second, we exploit very detailed geographical location information, including distances The Vital Statistics data reports only the weight gain and not the weight at the beginning (or end) of the pregnancy. One advantage of focusing on a longitudinal measure of weight gain instead of a measure of weight in levels is that only the recent exposure to fast-food should matter. 1 2 of only one tenth of a mile. By comparing groups of individuals who are at only slightly different distances to a restaurant, we can arguably diminish the impact of unobservable differences in characteristics between the two groups. Third, we have a more precise idea of the timing of exposure than many previous studies: The 9th graders are exposed to fast food near their new school from September until the time of a spring fitness test, while weight gain during pregnancy pertains to the 9 months of pregnancy. While it is clear that fast food is generally unhealthy, it is not obvious a priori that changes in the availability of fast food should be expected to have an impact on health. On the one hand, it is possible that proximity to a fast food restaurant simply leads local consumers to substitute away from unhealthy food prepared at home or consumed in existing restaurants, without significant changes in the overall amount of unhealthy food consumed. On the other hand, proximity to a fast food restaurant could lower the monetary and non-monetary costs of accessing unhealthy food. In addition, proximity to fast food may increase consumption of unhealthy food even in the absence of any decrease in cost if individuals have self-control problems. Ultimately, the effect of changes in the supply of fast food on obesity is an empirical question. We find that among 9th grade children, the presence of a fast-food restaurant within a tenth of a mile of a school is associated with an increase of about 1. 7 percentage points in the fraction of students in a class who are obese relative to the presence at. 25 miles. This effect amounts to a 5. 2 percent increase in the incidence of obesity. Since grade 9 is the first year of high school and the fitness tests take place in the Spring, the period of fast-food exposure is approximately 30 weeks, implying an increased caloric intake of 30 to 100 calories per school-day. The effect is larger in models that include school fixed effects. Consistent with highly non–linear transportation costs, we find no discernable effect at . 25 miles and at . 5 miles. The effect is largest for Hispanic students and female students. Among pregnant women, we find that a fast food restaurant within a half mile of a residence results in 0. 19 percentage points higher probability of gaining over 20kg. This amounts to a 2. 5 percent increase in the probability of gaining over 20 kilos. The effect is larger at . 1 miles, but in contrast to the results for 9th graders, it is still discernable at . 25 miles and at . 5 miles. The increase in weight implies an increased caloric intake of 1 to 4 3 calories per day in the pregnancy period. The effect varies across races and educational levels. It is largest for African American mothers and for mothers with a high school education or less. It is zero for mothers with a college degree or an associate’s degree. Overall, our findings suggest that increases in the supply of fast food restaurants have a significant effect on obesity, at least in some groups. However, it is in principle possible that our estimates reflect unmeasured shifts in the demand for fast food. Fast food chains are likely to open new restaurants where they expect demand to be strong, and higher demand for unhealthy food is almost certainly correlated with higher risk of obesity. The presence of unobserved determinants of obesity that may be correlated with increases in the number of fast food restaurants would lead us to overestimate the role of fast food restaurants. We can not entirely rule out this possibility. However, three pieces of evidence lend some credibility to our interpretation. First, we find that observable characteristics of the schools are not associated with changes in the availability of a fast food in the immediate vicinity of a school. Furthermore, we show that within the geographical area under consideration, fast food restaurants are uniformly distributed over space. Specifically, fast food restaurants are equally likely to be located within . 1, . 25, and . 5 miles of a school. We also find that after conditioning on mother fixed effects, the observable characteristics of mothers that predict high weight gain are negatively (not positively) related to the presence of a fast-food chain, suggesting that any bias in our estimates may be downward, not upward. While these findings do not necessarily imply that changes in the supply of fast food restaurants are orthogonal to unobserved determinants of obesity, they are at least consistent with our identifying assumption. Second, while we find that proximity to a fast food restaurant is associated with increases in obesity rates and weight gains, proximity to non fast food restaurants has no discernible effect on obesity rates or weight gains. This suggests that our estimates are not just capturing increases in the local demand for restaurant establishments. Third, we find that while current proximity to a fast food restaurant affects current obesity rates, proximity to future fast food restaurants, controlling for current proximity, has no effect on current obesity rates and weight gains. Taken together, the weight of the 4 evidence is consistent with a causal effect of fast food restaurants on obesity rates among 9th graders and on weight gains among pregnant women. The results on the impact of fast-food on obesity are consistent with a model in which access to fast-foods increases obesity by lowering food prices or by tempting consumers with self-control problems. 2 Differences in travel costs between students and mothers could explain the different effects of proximity. Ninth graders have higher travel costs in the sense that they are constrained to stay near the school during the school day, and hence are more affected by fast-food restaurants that are very close to the school. For this group, proximity to fast-food has a quite sizeable effect on obesity. In contrast, for pregnant women, proximity to fast-food has a quantitatively small (albeit statistically significant) impact on weight gain. Our results suggest that a ban on fast-foods in the immediate proximity of schools could have a sizeable effect on obesity rates among affected students. However, a similar attempt to reduce access to fast food in residential neighborhoods would be unlikely to have much effect on adult consumers. The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 we review the existing literature. In Section 3 we describe our data sources. In Section 4, we present our econometric models and our empirical findings. Section 5 concludes. 2. Background While the main motivation for focusing on school children and pregnant women is the availability of geographically detailed data on weight measures for a very large sample, they are important groups to study in their own right. Among school aged children 6-19 rates of overweight have soared from about 5% in the early 1970s to 16% in 1999-2002 (Hedley et al. 2004). These rates are of particular concern given that children who are overweight are more likely to be overweight as adults, and are increasingly suffering from diseases associated with obesity while still in childhood (Krebs and Jacobson, 2003). At the same time, the fraction of women gaining over 60 2 Consumers with self-control problems are not as tempted by fatty foods if they first have to incur the transportation cost of walking to a fast-food restaurant. Only when a fast-food is right near the school, the temptation of the fast-food looms large. For an overview of the role of self-control in economic applications, see DellaVigna (2009). A model of cues in consumption (Laibson, 2001) has similar implications: a fast-food that is in immediate proximity from the school is more likely to trigger a cue that leads to over-consumption. 5 pounds during pregnancy doubled between 1989 and 2000 (Lin, forthcoming). Excessive weight gain during pregnancy is often associated with higher rates of hypertension, C-section, and large-for-gestational age infants, as well as with a higher incidence of later maternal obesity (Gunderson and Abrams, 2000; Rooney and Schauberger, 2002; Thorsdottir et al. , 2002; Wanjiku and Raynor, 2004). 3 Moreover, Figure 1 shows that the incidence of low APGAR scores (APGAR scores less than 8), an indicator of poor fetal health, increases sharply with weight gain above about 20 kilograms. Critics of the fast food industry point to several features that may make fast food less healthy than other types of restaurant food (Spurlock, 2004; Schlosser, 2002). These include low monetary and time costs, large portions, and high calorie density of signature menu items. Indeed, energy densities for individual food items are often so high that it would be difficult for individuals consuming them not to exceed their average recommended dietary intakes (Prentice and Jebb, 2003). Some consumers may be particularly vulnerable. In two randomized experimental trials involving 26 obese and 28 lean adolescents, Ebbeling et al. (2004) compared caloric intakes on â€Å"unlimited fast food days† and â€Å"no fast food days†. They found that obese adolescents had higher caloric intakes on the fast food days, but not on the no fast food days. The largest fast food chains are also characterized by aggressive marketing to children. One experimental study of young children 3 to 5 offered them identical pairs of foods and beverages, the only difference being that some of the foods were in McDonald’s packaging. Children were significantly more likely to choose items perceived to be from McDonald’s (Robinson et al.2007). Chou, Grossman, and Rashad (forthcoming) use data from the National Longitudinal Surveys (NLS) 1979 and 1997 cohorts to examine the effect of exposure to fast food advertising on overweight among children and adolescents. In ordinary least squares (OLS) models, they find significant effects in most specifications. 4 3 According to the Centers for Disease Control, obesity and excessive weight gain are independently associated with poor pregnancy outcomes. Recommended weight gain is lower for obese women than in others. (http://www. cdc.gov/pednss/how_to/read_a_data_table/prevalence_tables/birth_outcome. htm) 4 They also estimate instrumental variables (IV) models using the price of advertising as an instrument. However, while they find a significant â€Å"first stage†, they do not report the IV estimates because tests 6 Still, a recent review of the considerable epidemiological literature about the relationship between fast food and obesity (Rosenheck, 2008) concluded that â€Å"Findings from observational studies as yet are unable to demonstrate a causal link between fast food consumption and weight gain or obesity†. Most epidemiological studies have longitudinal designs in which large groups of participants are tracked over a period of time and changes in their body mass index (BMI) are correlated with baseline measures of fast food consumption. These studies typically find a positive link between obesity and fast food consumption. However, existing observational studies cannot rule out potential confounders such as lack of physical activity, consumption of sugary beverages, and so on. food. 5 There is also a rapidly growing economics literature on obesity, reviewed in Philipson and Posner (2008). Economic studies place varying amounts of emphasis on increased caloric consumption as a primary determinant of obesity (a trend that is consistent with the increased availability of fast food). Using data from the NLSY, Lakdawalla and Philipson (2002) conclude that about 40% of the increase in obesity from 1976 to 1994 is attributable to lower food prices (and increased consumption) while the remainder is due to reduced physical activity in market and home production. Bleich et al. (2007) examine data from several developed countries and conclude that increased caloric intake is the main contributor to obesity. Cutler et al. (2003) examine food diaries as well as time use data from the last few decades and conclude that rising obesity is linked to increased caloric intake and not to reduced energy expenditure. 6 7 Moreover, all of these studies rely on self-reported consumption of fast suggest that advertising exposure is not endogenous. They also estimate, but do not report individual fixed effects models, because these models have much larger standard errors than the ones reported. 5 A typical question is of the form â€Å"How often do you eat food from a place like McDonald’s, Kentucky Fried Chicken, Pizza Hut, Burger King or some other fast food restaurant? † 6 They suggest that the increased caloric intake is from greater frequency of snacking, and not from increased portion sizes at restaurants or fattening meals at fast food restaurants. They further suggest that technological change has lowered the time cost of food preparation which in turn has lead to more frequent consumption of food. Finally, they speculate that people with self control problems are over-consuming in response to the fall in the time cost of food preparation. Cawley (1999) discusses a similar behavioral theory of obesity as a consequence of addiction. 7 Courtemanche and Carden examine the impact on obesity of Wal-Mart and warehouse club retailers such as Sam’s club, Costco and BJ’s wholesale club which compete on price. They link store location data to individual data from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS. ) They find that non-grocery selling Wal-Mart stores reduce weight while non-grocery selling stores and warehouse clubs either reduce weight or have no effect. Their explanation is that reduced prices for everyday purchases expand real 7 A series of recent papers explicitly focus on fast food restaurants as potential contributors to obesity. Chou et al. (2004) estimate models combining state-level price data with individual demographic and weight data from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance surveys and find a positive association between obesity and the per capita number of restaurants (fast food and others) in the state. Rashad, Grossman, and Chou (2005) present similar findings using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys. Anderson and Butcher (2005) investigate the effect of school food policies on the BMI of adolescent students using data from the NLSY97. They assume that variation in financial pressure on schools across counties provides exogenous variation in availability of junk food in the schools. They find that a 10 percentage point increase in the probability of access to junk food at school can lead to about 1 percent increase in students’ BMI. Anderson, Butcher and Schanzenbach (2007) examine the elasticity of children’s BMI with respect to mother’s BMI and find that it has increased over time, suggesting an increased role for environmental factors in child obesity. Anderson, Butcher, and Levine (2003) find that maternal employment is related to childhood obesity, and speculate that employed mothers might spend more on fast food. Cawley and Liu (2007) use time use data and find that employed women spend less time cooking and are more likely to purchase prepared foods. The paper that is closest to ours is a recent study by Anderson and Matsa (2009) that focuses on the link between eating out and obesity using the presence of Interstate highways in rural areas as an instrument for restaurant density. Interstate highways increase restaurant density for communities adjacent to highways, reducing the travel costs of eating out for people in these communities. They find no evidence of a causal link between restaurants and obesity. Using data from the USDA, they argue that the lack of an effect is due to the presence of selection bias in restaurant patrons –people who eat out also consume more calories when they eat at home–and the fact that large portions at restaurants are offset by lower caloric intake at other times of the day. Our paper differs from Anderson and Matsa (2009) in four important dimensions, and these four differences are likely to explain the difference in our findings. incomes, enabling households to substitute away from cheap unhealthy foods to more expensive but healthier alternatives. 8 (i) First, our data allow us to distinguish between fast food restaurants and other restaurants. We can therefore estimate separately the impact of fast-foods and of other restaurants on obesity. In contrast, Anderson and Matsa do not have data on fast food restaurants and therefore focus on the effect of any restaurant on obesity. This difference turns out to be crucial, because when we estimate the effect of any restaurant on obesity using our data we also find no discernible effect on obesity. (ii) Second, we have a very large sample that allows us to identify even small effects, such as mean increases of 50 grams in the weight gain of mothers during pregnancy. Our estimates of weight gain for mothers are within the confidence interval of Anderson and Matsa’s two stage least squares estimates. Put differently, based on their sample size, our statistically significant estimates would have been considered statistically insignificant. (iii) Third, our data give us the exact location of each restaurant, school and mother. The spatial richness of our data allows us to examine the effect of fast food restaurants on obesity at a very detailed geographical level. For example, we can distinguish the effect at . 1 miles from the effect at . 25 miles. As it turns out, this feature is quite important, because the effects that we find are geographically extremely localized. For example, we find that fast food restaurant have an effect on 9th graders only for distances of . 1 miles or less. By contrast, Anderson and Matsa use a city as the level of geographical analysis. It is not surprising that at this level of aggregation the estimated effect is zero. (iv) Fourth, Anderson and Matsa’s identification strategy differs from ours, since we do not use an instrument for fast-food availability and focus instead on changes in the availability of fast-foods at very close distances. The populations under consideration are also different, and may react differently to proximity to a fast food restaurant. Anderson and Matsa focus on predominantly white rural communities, while we focus on primarily urban 9th graders and urban mothers. We document that the effects vary considerable depending on race, with blacks and Hispanics having the largest effect. Indeed, when Dunn (2008) uses an instrumental variables approach similar to the one used Anderson and Matsa based on proximity to freeways, he finds no effect for rural areas and for 9 whites in suburban areas, but strong effect for blacks and Hispanics. As we show below, we also find stronger effects for minorities. Taken together, these four differences lead us to conclude that the evidence in Anderson and Matsa is consistent with our evidence. 8 In summary, there is strong evidence of correlations between fast food consumption and obesity. It has been more difficult to demonstrate a causal role for fast food. In this paper we tap new data in an attempt to test the causal connection between fast food and obesity. 3. Data Sources and Summary Statistics Data for this project comes from three sources. (a) School Data. Data on children comes from the California public schools for the years 1999 and 2001 to 2007. The observations for 9th graders, which we focus on in this paper, represent 3. 06 million student-year observations. In the spring, California 9th graders are given a fitness assessment, the FITNESSGRAM ®. Data is reported at the class level in the form of the percentage of students who are obese, and who have acceptable levels of abdominal strength, aerobic capacity, flexibility, trunk strength, and upper body strength. Obesity is measured using actual body fat measures, which are considerably more accurate than the usual BMI measure (Cawley and Burkhauser, 2006). Data is also reported for sub-groups within the school (e. g. by race and gender) provided the cells have at least 10 students. Since grade 9 is the first year of high school and the fitness tests take place in the Spring, this impact corresponds to approximately 30 weeks of fast-food exposure. 9 This administrative data set is merged to information about schools (including the percent black, white, Hispanic, and Asian, percent immigrant, pupil/teacher ratios, fraction eligible for free lunch etc. ) from the National Center for Education Statistic’s Common Core of Data, as well as to the Start test scores for the 9th grade. The location of the school was also geocoded using ArcView. Finally, we merged in information. 8 9 See also Brennan and carpenter (2009). In very few cases, a high school is in the same location as a middle school, in which case the estimates reflect a longer-term impact of fast-food. 10 about the nearest Census block group of the school from the 2000 Census including the median earnings, percent high-school degree, percent unemployed, and percent urban. (b) Mothers Data. Data on mothers come from Vital Statistics Natality data from Michigan, New Jersey, and Texas. These data are from birth certificates, and cover all births in these states from 1989 to 2003 (from 1990 in Michigan). For these three states, we were able to gain access to confidential data including mothers names, birth dates, and addresses, which enabled us both to construct a panel data set linking births to the same mother over time, and to geocode her location (again using ArcView). The Natality data are very rich, and include information about the mother’s age, education, race and ethnicity; whether she smoked during pregnancy; the child’s gender, birth order, and gestation; whether it was a multiple birth; and maternal weight gain. We restrict the sample to singleton births and to mothers with at least two births in the sample, for a total of over 3. 5 million births. (c) Restaurant Data. Restaurant data with geo-coding information come from the National Establishment Time Series Database (Dun and Bradstreet). These data are used by all major banks, lending institutions, insurance and finance companies as the primary system for creditworthiness assessment of firms. As such, it is arguably more precise and comprehensive than yellow pages and business directories. 10 We obtained a panel of virtually all firms in Standard Industrial Classification 58 from 1990 to 2006, with names and addresses. Using this data, we constructed several different measures of â€Å"fast food† and â€Å"other restaurants,† as discussed further in Appendix 1. In this paper, the benchmark definition of fast-food restaurants includes only the top-10 fast-food chains, namely, Mc Donalds, Subway, Burger King, Taco Bell, Pizza Hut, Little Caesars, KFC, Wendy’s, Dominos Pizza, and Jack In The Box. We also show estimates using a broader definition that includes both chain restaurants and independent burger and pizza restaurants. Finally, we also measure the supply of non-fast food restaurants. The definition of â€Å"other restaurants† changes with the definition of fast food. Appendix Table 1 lists the top 10 fast food chains as well as examples of restaurants that we did not classify as fast food. The yellow pages are not intended to be a comprehensive listing of businesses – they are a paid advertisement. Companies that do not pay are not listed. 10 11 Matching. Matching was performed using information on latitude and longitude of restaurant location. Specifically, we match the schools and mother’s residence to the closest restaurants using ArcView software. For the school data, we match the results on testing for the spring of year t with restaurant availability in year t-1. For the mother data, we match the data on weight gain during pregnancy with restaurant availability in the year that overlaps the most with the pregnancy. Summary Statistics. Using the data on restaurant, school, and mother’s locations, we constructed indicators for whether there are fast food or other restaurants within . 1, . 25, and . 5 miles of either the school or the mother’s residence. Table 1a shows summary characteristics of the schools data set by distance to a fast food restaurant. Here, as in most of the paper, we use the narrow definition of fast-food, including the top-10 fast-food chains. Relatively few schools are within . 1 miles of a fast food restaurant, and the characteristics of these schools are somewhat different than those of the average California school. Only 7% of schools have a fast food restaurant within . 1 miles, while 65% of all schools have a fast food restaurant within 1/2 of a mile. 11 Schools within . 1 miles of a fast food restaurant have more Hispanic students, a slightly higher fraction of students eligible for free lunch, and lower test scores. They are also located in poorer and more urban areas. The last row indicates that schools near a fast food restaurant have a higher incidence of obese students than the average California school. Table 1b shows a similar summary of the mother data. Again, mothers who live near fast food restaurants have different characteristics than the average mother. They are younger, less educated, more likely to be black or Hispanic, and less likely to be married. 4. Empirical Analysis We begin in Section 4. 1 by describing our econometric models and our identifying assumptions. In Section 4. 2 we show the correlation between restaurant location and student characteristics for the school sample, and the correlation between The average school in our sample had 4 fast foods within 1 mile and 24 other restaurants within the same radius. 11 12 restaurant location and mother characteristics for the mother sample. Our empirical estimates for students and mothers are in Section 4. 3 and 4. 4, respectively. 13 4. 1 Econometric Specifications Our empirical specification for schools is (1) Yst = ? F1st + ? F25st + ? F50st + ? ’ N1st + ? ’ N25st + ? ’ N50st + ? Xst + ? Zst + ds + est where Yst is the fraction of students in school s in a given grade who are obese in year t; F1st is an indicator equal to 1 if there is a fast food restaurant within . 1 mile from the school in year t; F25st is an indicator equal to 1 if there is a fast food restaurant within . 25 miles from the school in year t; F50st is an indicator equal to 1 if there is a fast food restaurant within . 5 mile from the school in year t; N1st, N25st and N50st are similar indicators for the presence of non-fast food restaurants within . 1, . 25 and . 5 miles from the school; ds is a fixed effect for the school. The vectors Xst and Zst include school and neighborhood time-varying characteristics that can potentially affect obesity rates. Specifically, Xst is a vector of school-grade specific characteristics including fraction blacks, fraction native Americans, fraction Hispanic, fraction immigrants, fraction female, fraction eligible for free lunch, whether the school is qualified for Title I funding, pupil/teacher ratio, and 9th grade tests scores, as well as school-district characteristics such as fraction immigrants, fraction of non-English speaking students (LEP/ELL), share of IEP students. Zst is a vector of characteristics of the Census block closest to the school including median income, median earnings, average household size, median rent, median housing value, percent white, percent black, percent Asian, percent.